A queen bee is typically an adult, mated female (gyne) that resides within a honey bee colony or hive. Possessing fully developed reproductive organs, the queen generally serves as the progenitor for the majority, if not all, of the bees within the beehive. Queens originate from larvae chosen by worker bees and are provided with specialized nourishment to facilitate their sexual maturation. Typically, a single adult, mated queen inhabits a hive, leading the bees to generally exhibit loyalty and vigorous protection towards her.
The designation "queen bee" can be broadly extended to encompass any dominant reproductive female within a colony of eusocial bee species, beyond just honey bees. Nevertheless, in certain species, such as the Brazilian stingless bee (Schwarziana quadripunctata), a solitary nest might contain several queens or even dwarf queens, poised to assume the role of a dominant queen should an unexpected demise occur.
Development
During warmer periods of the year, female worker bees routinely exit the hive to gather nectar and pollen. Conversely, male bees, lacking architectural or pollinating roles, primarily function (contingent on their health) to copulate with a queen bee. Successful copulation typically results in their subsequent fall to the ground and death. Any fertilized egg possesses the inherent capacity to develop into a queen. The larval diet is the critical determinant of whether an individual bee will differentiate into a queen or a worker. Queens receive an exclusive diet of royal jelly, a protein-rich glandular secretion produced by young worker bees. In contrast, worker larvae are nourished with bee bread, a composite of nectar and pollen. While all bee larvae consume some royal jelly for the initial days post-hatching, only queen larvae are sustained solely by this substance. This dietary divergence is directly responsible for the queen's development into a sexually mature female, distinct from worker bees.
Queens are reared within specialized queen cells. These fully developed queen cells exhibit a distinctive peanut-like morphology and surface texture. Initially, queen cells manifest as queen cups, which surpass the size of standard brood comb cells and are oriented vertically rather than horizontally. Worker bees proceed with the construction of a queen cup only after the queen has deposited an egg within it. Typically, the existing queen commences oviposition into queen cups when environmental conditions favor swarming or supersedure. Swarm cells are suspended from the lower edge of a frame, whereas supersedure or emergency queens are generally cultivated in cells constructed from the surface of a frame.
Once the young queen larva pupates in a head-down orientation, worker bees seal the queen cell with beeswax. Upon reaching maturity and readiness for emergence, the virgin queen masticates a circular incision around the cell's cap. Frequently, the cap pivots open once the majority of the cut is completed, resembling a hinged lid.
During the swarming season, the established queen typically departs with the primary swarm prior to the emergence of the inaugural virgin queen from a queen cell.
Virgin Queen Bee
A virgin queen is defined as a queen bee that has not yet engaged in copulation with a drone. Virgin queens exhibit an intermediate size, falling between that of worker bees and mated, ovipositing queens, and display significantly greater activity than the latter. Their detection during frame inspection is challenging due to their rapid movement across the comb, often ascending over worker bees, and their propensity to take flight if adequately agitated. During hive inspections, virgin queens are frequently observed adhering to the internal walls or corners of the hive.
Virgin queens seemingly produce minimal queen pheromone, often leading to their non-recognition as queens by worker bees. A virgin queen, within the initial hours post-emergence, can typically be introduced into the entrance of any queenless hive or nuc with a high probability of acceptance. In contrast, a mated queen is generally perceived as an intruder, incurring a substantial risk of being eliminated by older worker bees.
Upon emergence from her queen cell, a young virgin queen typically seeks and attempts to eliminate rival virgin queens. These virgin queens swiftly locate and neutralize (via stinging) any other emerged virgin queens, or are themselves eliminated, and also target unemerged queens. Queen cells exhibiting lateral openings suggest that a virgin queen was probably killed by a competitor. Should a colony persist in swarm mode following the departure of the prime swarm, workers might inhibit virgin queens from engaging in combat, allowing one or more virgins to accompany subsequent after-swarms. Additional virgin queens may remain with the residual hive population. Observations indicate that some virgin queens escape the hive to evade elimination, subsequently seeking queenless colonies, as exemplified by the eusocial bee Melipona scutellaris. Such colonies may harbor multiple virgin queens. Once an after-swarm establishes a new domicile, the virgin queens revert to their typical behavior, engaging in lethal combat until a single survivor prevails. In instances where the prime swarm includes both a virgin queen and an older queen, the older queen is typically permitted to survive. The older queen maintains her oviposition activities. Within approximately two weeks, she will succumb to natural causes, and the formerly virgin queen, now mated, will assume her role.
In contrast to worker bees, the queen's stinger lacks barbs, enabling her to deliver multiple stings without perishing.
Piping
Piping () refers to a distinct sound produced by both virgin and mated queen bees at specific stages of virgin queen development. Mature virgin queens communicate via vibratory signals: "quacking" originating from queens within their cells, and "tooting" emitted by queens freely moving within the colony; these are collectively termed piping. A virgin queen often pipes prior to emerging from her cell and for a short period subsequent to emergence. Mated queens might also briefly pipe following their introduction into a hive.
Piping activity intensifies when multiple queens are present within a single hive. It is hypothesized that piping serves as a form of challenge, signaling to rival queens and demonstrating to workers a queen's readiness for combat. Furthermore, it could function as an indicator to worker bees, identifying the most viable queen for their allegiance.
An adult queen's piping typically consists of a two-second pulse succeeded by a sequence of quarter-second toots. Queens of African bee subspecies exhibit more intense and frequent piping episodes.
Reproduction Cycle
On a warm, sunny day, the surviving virgin queen undertakes a nuptial flight to a drone congregation area, where she copulates with 12–15 drones. Favorable weather conditions may allow her to re Copulation exclusively takes place during flight. The young queen stores up to 6 million spermatozoa, acquired from multiple drones, within her spermatheca. She will then selectively release these sperm throughout the subsequent 2–7 years of her reproductive lifespan.
A young virgin queen possesses a finite window for mating. Should adverse weather conditions prevent her nuptial flights for several days, resulting in her remaining unmated, she will transition into a "drone layer." Queens that exclusively lay unfertilized eggs typically portend the demise of the colony, as workers lack fertilized (female) larvae necessary for rearing new worker bees or a successor queen.
While timing may exhibit variability, mating flights generally occur between the sixth and tenth day following the queen's emergence. Oviposition typically commences 2 to 3 days after the queen's return to the beehive, though it can occasionally begin sooner.
A distinct and infrequent reproductive phenomenon is thelytoky, characterized by the parthenogenetic production of female workers or queens by laying worker bees. This mode of reproduction is observed in the Cape bee, Apis mellifera capensis, and has been documented in other strains, albeit at extremely low frequencies.
Supersedure
With advancing age, a queen's pheromone production naturally declines. An aging, diseased, or failing queen bee is consequently replaced by the worker bees through a process termed "supersedure."
Beekeepers can induce supersedure, for instance, by excising one of the queen's middle or posterior legs. This impairment prevents her from correctly depositing eggs at the base of brood cells; workers perceive this deficiency and subsequently rear replacement queens. Upon the emergence of a new queen, workers eliminate the incumbent queen through a behavior known as "balling," which involves tightly clustering around her. Mortality via balling is achieved by enveloping the queen and elevating her body temperature, leading to hyperthermia and death. This "balling" behavior frequently poses a challenge for beekeepers endeavoring to introduce a substitute queen.
In the event of a sudden queen demise, worker bees endeavor to produce an "emergency queen." This process involves selecting several newly emerged larvae within brood cells, which are subsequently inundated with royal jelly. Concurrently, worker bees construct enlarged queen cells, which project vertically from the brood comb, over the standard-sized worker cells. Typically, emergency queens exhibit smaller stature and reduced prolificacy compared to naturally developed queens.
Daily Activities
The queen bee's principal role is reproduction. A queen that is adequately mated and nourished, originating from robust genetic stock, is capable of depositing approximately 1,500 eggs daily during the spring proliferation phase, a mass exceeding her own body weight. She is perpetually attended by worker bees who fulfill all her requirements, providing sustenance and managing waste removal. These attendant workers also gather and disseminate queen mandibular pheromone, a chemical signal that suppresses the initiation of new queen cells by other workers.
The queen bee possesses the capacity to regulate the sex of the eggs she oviposits. She deposits either a fertilized (female) or unfertilized (male) egg based on the dimensions of the brood cell. Drone bees develop in cells that are considerably larger than those designated for worker bees. Fertilization occurs as the egg traverses her oviduct, at which point the queen selectively releases sperm from her spermatheca.
Identification
The queen bee is characterized by an abdomen that is notably longer than those of surrounding worker bees and also exceeds the length of a male bee's abdomen. Nevertheless, locating the queen swiftly within a colony comprising 60,000 to 80,000 honey bees often presents a challenge for beekeepers. Consequently, many queens in managed colonies are marked with a small application of paint on their thorax. This marking typically poses no harm to the queen and facilitates her identification when required.
While color selection can occasionally be arbitrary, professional queen breeders employ a standardized color system to denote the queen's hatch year. This system aids in determining if queens are past their optimal age for maintaining a robust colony and require replacement. A common mnemonic used by beekeepers to recall the color sequence is 'Will You Raise Good Bees' (representing white, yellow, red, green, blue).
In certain instances, small convex discs bearing identification numbers (Opalithplättchen) are utilized, particularly when a beekeeper manages numerous queens hatched in the same year. This technique also serves to facilitate the observation of multiple bees within a single hive for research objectives.
Queen Rearing
Queen rearing constitutes the practice wherein beekeepers cultivate queen bees from young, fertilized worker bee larvae. The Doolittle method is the most prevalent technique employed. This method involves the beekeeper grafting larvae, aged 24 hours or less, into a bar of queen cell cups. These cups are then positioned within a cell-building colony, which is a robust, well-provisioned, queenless colony that supplies royal jelly to the larvae, fostering their development into queen bees.
Following approximately 10 days, the queen cells are relocated from the cell-building colony to smaller mating nuclei colonies, situated within designated mating yards. The queens subsequently emerge from their cells within these mating nuclei. After an additional period of roughly 7–10 days, the virgin queens undertake mating flights, copulating with 10–20 drone bees, and subsequently return to their mating nuclei as inseminated queen bees.
Queen rearing can be conducted on a modest scale by hobbyist or sideline beekeepers who produce a limited number of queens for personal use. Alternatively, it can be performed on a larger, commercial scale by enterprises specializing in the production of queen bees for public sale. In 2017, the market price for a queen honeybee typically ranged from $25 to $32.
Beekeepers also have access to alternative methodologies for queen rearing. Notable examples include the Jenter kit, the walk-away split technique, the Cloake board system, and artificial insemination.
Worker policing
- Worker policing
- Queen ant
References
Bees Gone Wild Apiaries, retrieved May 2005.
- Bees Gone Wild Apiaries, accessed May 2005
- Schneider, Stanley Scott; DeGrandi-Hoffman, Gloria; Roan Smith, Deborah. THE AFRICAN HONEY BEE: Factors Contributing to a Successful Biological Invasion. Annual Review of Entomology, 2004, 49:351–76; retrieved May 2005.
- The Feminin' Monarchi', Or the History of Bees by Charles Butler, 1634, London; retrieved May 2005.
- Châline, Nicolas (September 2004). Reproductive conflict in the honey bee (PDF) (Doctor of Philosophy thesis). Sheffield, England: University of Sheffield, Department of Animal and Plant Sciences. OCLC 278134906. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 May 2005. Retrieved 31 July 2009.Source: TORIma Academy Archive