Analytic philosophy

Analytic philosophy represents a prominent intellectual tradition or methodological approach within contemporary Western philosophy, particularly prevalent in Anglophone contexts. It is characterized by a strong emphasis on rigorous analysis, clear and precise prose, robust argumentation, formal logic, mathematics, and the natural sciences, often with less focus on the humanities. A defining feature of this philosophical style is the linguistic turn, which signifies a deep engagement with language and the exploration of meaning.

Analytic philosophy is a broad school of thought or style in contemporary Western philosophy, especially anglophone philosophy, with an emphasis on analysis, clear prose, rigorous arguments, formal logic, mathematics, and the natural sciences (with less emphasis on the humanities). It is further characterized by the linguistic turn, or a concern with language and meaning.

This philosophical orientation is frequently contrasted with continental philosophy, an umbrella term encompassing diverse methodologies prevalent in continental Europe, such as existentialism, phenomenology, and Hegelianism. Furthermore, the distinction is sometimes drawn by characterizing "analytic" philosophy as academic or technical, while "continental" philosophy is viewed as more literary.

The emergence and expansion of analytic philosophy commenced around the turn of the twentieth century, achieving a dominant position in the latter half of that century. Key historical figures include Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, G. E. Moore, and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Other significant contributors comprise Franz Brentano, the logical positivists (notably Rudolf Carnap), and the ordinary language philosophers.

Influential thinkers such as Wilfrid Sellars, W. V. O. Quine, Saul Kripke, and David Lewis were instrumental in the decline of logical positivism and the subsequent resurgence of metaphysics. Analytic philosophy has also fostered the development of several new philosophical and logical sub-disciplines, including the philosophy of language, mathematics, and science, alongside modern predicate and mathematical logic.

Austrian realism

Analytic philosophy experienced profound influence from Austrian realism, which originated in the former state of Austria-Hungary. This impact was so significant that Michael Dummett proposed characterizing it as Anglo-Austrian, rather than the more commonly used Anglo-American.

Brentano

In his 1874 work, Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint, Franz Brentano, a philosopher and psychologist at the University of Vienna, introduced the philosophical concept of intentionality, or "aboutness." Brentano posited that all mental events or acts of consciousness inherently possess a real, non-mental intentional object toward which the thought is directed or "about." He famously declared intentionality to be "the mark of the mental," distinguishing it from mere intention or intension.

Brentano articulated that every mental phenomenon is defined by what medieval Scholastics termed the intentional (or mental) inexistence of an object, or, less ambiguously, a reference to content, a directedness toward an object (not to be understood as a physical thing), or immanent objectivity. He explained that each mental phenomenon intrinsically contains an object, though not uniformly. For instance, in presentation, something is presented; in judgment, something is affirmed or denied; in love, something is loved; in hate, something is hated; and in desire, something is desired. This intentional in-existence is exclusively characteristic of mental phenomena, with no physical phenomenon exhibiting a similar property. Consequently, mental phenomena can be defined as those that intentionally contain an object within themselves.

The School of Brentano included notable figures such as Edmund Husserl and Alexius Meinong. Meinong established the Graz School and is recognized for his distinctive ontology of real, nonexistent objects, which offered a solution to the problem of empty names. This perspective is known as Meinongianism, or pejoratively, Meinong's jungle. According to Meinong, entities like flying pigs or golden mountains possess reality and being, despite their non-existence. The Polish Lwów–Warsaw school, founded by Kazimierz Twardowski, also drew influence from Brentano. Twardowski advocated for "small philosophy," emphasizing the meticulous, systematic analysis of specific philosophical problems. His work was further shaped by the Bohemian logical realist Bernard Bolzano.

Frege

Gottlob Frege, a German geometry professor at the University of Jena, logician, and philosopher, is widely regarded as the foundational figure of analytic philosophy. He championed logicism, a philosophical endeavor aimed at reducing arithmetic to pure logic, thereby aligning with Leibniz and opposing Kant in the philosophy of mathematics.

Logic

Frege's seminal work, Begriffsschrift (English: Concept-script, 1879), introduced modern mathematical and predicate logic, complete with quantifiers. This development allowed Frege to synthesize the two historical traditions of ancient logic—Aristotelian and Stoic—significantly expanding the range of sentences that could be formally analyzed. A prime illustration of this advancement is its capacity to address the problem of multiple generality.

Number

Neo-Kantianism was a dominant force in late nineteenth-century German philosophy. Husserl's book Philosophie der Arithmetik (1891) posited that the concept of a cardinal number originated from mental acts of grouping and counting objects. Conversely, challenging this "psychologism," Frege, in The Foundations of Arithmetic (1884) and The Basic Laws of Arithmetic (German: Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, 1893–1903), contended that mathematics and logic possess inherent, public objects, distinct from individual subjective judgments or mental states. Consequently, adherents of logicism, influenced by Frege, generally espoused a form of mathematical Platonism.

The contemporary investigation of set theory commenced with the German mathematicians Richard Dedekind and Georg Cantor. The Italian mathematician Giuseppe Peano streamlined Dedekind's contributions to formalize mathematics through Peano arithmetic. Frege further developed this framework, aiming to reduce arithmetic to logic, which led to the formulation of naive set theory and a set-theoretic definition for natural numbers.

Language

Frege also exerted significant influence on the philosophy of language. Dummett attributes the linguistic turn to Frege's Foundations of Arithmetic and his articulation of the context principle. Frege famously stated, "never ... inquire about the meaning of a word in isolation, but only in the context of a proposition." As elucidated by Dummett, to address the Kantian inquiry, "How are numbers presented to us, given that we possess no idea or intuition of them?", Frege posited a solution by defining "the sense of a proposition containing a number word." Consequently, a philosophical problem traditionally approached through idealist frameworks was re-conceptualized and resolved via linguistic analysis.

Sense and reference

Frege's paper "On Sense and Reference" (1892) is a foundational text, presenting Frege's paradoxes concerning identity and proposing a mediated theory of reference. Frege observed that "the Morning Star" and "the Evening Star" share the same reference, both designating the planet Venus. Consequently, the substitution of one term for the other preserves the truth value (salva veritate). Nevertheless, they diverge in what Frege termed their cognitive value or mode of presentation. A distinction must therefore be drawn between two concepts of meaning: the reference of a term and its sense. As Frege demonstrated, while "the Morning Star is the Morning Star" conveys no new information, "the Morning Star is the Evening Star" is informative; hence, these two expressions must possess a distinction beyond their shared reference.

Another related conundrum, also identified as Frege's puzzle, pertains to intensional contexts and reports of propositional attitudes. For instance, consider the assertion: "The ancients believed the morning star is the evening star." This proposition could be false. Conversely, the statement "The ancients believed the morning star is the morning star" is self-evidently true. In this scenario, "the morning star" and "the evening star" again exhibit distinct meanings, notwithstanding their identical reference.

In Frege's paper "On Concept and Object" (1892), he delineated a distinction between a concept, which serves as the reference of a predicate, and an object, which constitutes the reference of a proper name.

Thought

The paper "The Thought: A Logical Inquiry" (1918) demonstrates Frege's anti-idealist stance. He advocates for a Platonist interpretation of propositions, or thoughts. Frege asserted that propositions, while intangible like ideas, are nonetheless publicly accessible, akin to physical objects. Beyond the physical, public "first realm" of objects and the private, mental "second realm" of ideas, Frege introduced a "third realm" comprising Platonic propositions, exemplified by the Pythagorean theorem.

Revolt against idealism

British philosophy in the nineteenth century experienced a resurgence of logic, initiated by Richard Whately, as a response to the anti-logical tendencies within British empiricism. A pivotal figure during this era was the mathematician George Boole. Additional notable individuals encompassed the Scottish metaphysician William Hamilton, the mathematician Augustus De Morgan, the economist William Stanley Jevons, John Venn (after whom the Venn diagram is named), Lewis Carroll (author of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland), the Scottish mathematician Hugh MacColl, and the American pragmatist Charles Sanders Peirce.

Nevertheless, late nineteenth-century British philosophy was largely characterized by British idealism, a neo-Hegelian current propagated by thinkers like F. H. Bradley and T. H. Green. Bradley's treatise, Appearance and Reality (1893), served as a quintessential representation of this philosophical school.

The emergence of analytic philosophy, specifically within twentieth-century Anglophone thought, is commonly attributed to the Cambridge philosophers Bertrand Russell and G. E. Moore. Their work marked a significant departure from Hegelianism, which they criticized for its perceived obscurity, often characterized as a "revolt against idealism." Russell articulated Moore's impact on common-sense philosophy:

"G. E. Moore initiated this rebellion, and I subsequently joined, experiencing a profound sense of liberation. Whereas Bradley had contended that all common-sense beliefs constituted mere appearances, we embraced the antithetical view: that everything perceived as real by common sense, unadulterated by philosophical or theological influence, is indeed real. Feeling as though we had escaped confinement, we permitted ourselves to accept that grass is green, that the sun and stars persist independently of human awareness, and furthermore, that a pluralistic, timeless realm of Platonic ideas exists."

Russell and Moore significantly advanced the philosophy of perception through their development of naïve realism and sense-data theory. Concurrently, in America, the New Realists emerged as opponents of idealism.

Logical Atomism

A fundamental tenet of both Hegelianism and British idealism was logical holism, which posits that individual aspects of the world can only be comprehended through an understanding of the entire world. This concept is intrinsically linked to the doctrine of internal relations, which asserts that the relationships between entities are internal relations, signifying essential properties inherent to those entities. In opposition, Russell and Moore advanced logical atomism and the doctrine of external relations, maintaining that the world is fundamentally composed of independent facts.

Russell

In 1901, Russell made the significant discovery of a paradox within Basic Law V, also referred to as unrestricted comprehension, which critically challenged Frege's set theory. Despite this, Russell remained committed to logicism, and in his 1903 work, The Principles of Mathematics, he additionally advocated for Meinongianism.

Theory of Descriptions

Early in his career, Russell embraced Frege's predicate logic as his principal philosophical methodology, believing it capable of revealing the fundamental structure of philosophical issues. This approach was most notably demonstrated in his theory of definite descriptions, presented in "On Denoting," an essay published in Mind in 1905. This particular essay has been lauded as a "paradigm of philosophy."

Within this essay, Russell engages with the ideas of both Meinong and Frege. He employs his analytical framework for descriptions to address statements concerning nonexistence, exemplified by phrases such as "the present King of France." Russell contends that all proper names, with the exception of demonstratives like this or that, function as concealed definite descriptions; for instance, "Walter Scott" could be substituted with "the author of Waverley." This philosophical stance subsequently became known as descriptivism.

Russell then introduces his distinct formulation of Frege's second puzzle.

"If 'a' is identical with 'b', then any truth applicable to one is equally applicable to the other, and either term can be substituted for the other without altering the truth value of the proposition. Consider that George IV desired to ascertain whether Scott was the author of Waverley; and indeed, Scott was the author of Waverley. Consequently, we could substitute 'Scott' for 'the author of Waverley' and thus demonstrate that George IV wished to know whether Scott was Scott. However, it is improbable that the 'first gentleman of Europe' would possess an interest in the law of identity."

The essay further elucidates the concept of scope ambiguity by demonstrating that the negation of "The present King of France is bald" can be interpreted in two distinct ways: either "There is no King of France" or "The present King of France is not bald." Russell humorously remarks, "Hegelians, who are fond of synthesis, will likely conclude that he wears a wig." For Russell, knowledge was categorized into knowledge by description and, derived from sense-data theory, knowledge by acquaintance.

Principia Mathematica

The collaborative work by Russell and Alfred North Whitehead, Principia Mathematica (published between 1910 and 1913), became a foundational text for classical logic and the logicist program, stimulating renewed interest in symbolic logic among numerous philosophers. This work incorporated Peano's notation and introduced a theory of types to circumvent the issues posed by Russell's paradox. Separately, Whitehead later developed process metaphysics in his 1929 publication, Process and Reality.

Ideal Language

Russell posited that philosophical problems could be resolved by elucidating the fundamental constituents of complex concepts. He argued that logical form would be clarified through syntactic analysis. For instance, the English term is possesses three discrete meanings, which predicate logic is capable of articulating as follows:

• In the sentence 'the cat is asleep', the is of predication signifies the relationship "x is P," formally represented as P(x).
• Conversely, in the statement 'there is a cat', the is of existence denotes "there is an x," symbolized by ∃x.
• Furthermore, for the sentence 'three is half of six', the is of identity indicates that "x is the same as y," expressed as x=y.

Between approximately 1910 and 1930, analytic philosophers prioritized the development of an ideal language for philosophical analysis, aiming to eliminate the ambiguities inherent in ordinary language, which they believed frequently misdirected philosophical inquiry.

Early Wittgenstein's Philosophy

Ludwig Wittgenstein, a student of Russell, formulated a comprehensive system of logical atomism, incorporating a picture theory of meaning, in his seminal work Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (German: Logisch-Philosophische Abhandlung, 1921), often referred to simply as the Tractatus. Wittgenstein famously believed that the Tractatus had resolved all fundamental philosophical issues.

The treatise commences with the assertion, "The world is all that is the case." Wittgenstein posited that the universe constitutes the entirety of actual states of affairs, which can be articulated and reflected through the framework of first-order predicate logic. Consequently, a picture of the universe can be formed by representing facts as atomic propositions and connecting them via logical operators.

The Tractatus introduced key concepts such as tautology, truth conditions, and the truth table method to philosophical discourse. Wittgenstein contended that tautologies, or logical truths, say nothing explicitly but rather show the inherent logical structure of the world, leading some interpreters to characterize him as a mystic who embraced the ineffable. Ultimately, the Tractatus concludes that all its own propositions are meaningless, employing the metaphor of a ladder that must be discarded after ascent. The work famously concludes: "Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent."

Logical Positivism

From the late 1920s through the 1940s, two distinct philosophical groups, the Vienna Circle and the Berlin Circle, expanded upon the philosophies of Russell and Wittgenstein, formulating a doctrine termed "logical positivism" (also known as logical empiricism). The Vienna Circle, formerly the Ernst Mach Society, was directed by Moritz Schlick and comprised members such as Rudolf Carnap and Otto Neurath. Concurrently, the Berlin Circle was headed by Hans Reichenbach, with Carl Hempel and the mathematician David Hilbert among its notable participants.

Logical positivists employed formal logical methodologies to construct an empiricist epistemology. They embraced the verification principle, which asserted that all meaningful statements are either analytic or synthetic. Under this framework, the truths of logic and mathematics were classified as tautologies, while scientific truths were considered verifiable empirical claims. These two categories encompassed the entirety of meaningful judgments; any other assertion was deemed nonsensical. Consequently, the principle dismissed statements pertaining to metaphysics, theology, ethics, and aesthetics as cognitively meaningless.

Logical positivists regarded their verificationist stance as an echo of David Hume's concluding remarks from his work An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748):

If we take in our hand any volume; of divinity or school metaphysics, for instance; let us ask, Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number? No. Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence? No. Commit it then to the flames: for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion.

This perspective prompted logical positivists to dismiss numerous traditional philosophical problems. They generally assigned philosophy a circumscribed role, primarily focused on the clarification of ideas, rather than attributing to it a unique subject matter.

Epistemological questions remained a subject of discussion. Schlick advocated for foundationalism, conceptualizing knowledge as a pyramid constructed upon preceding layers, with the exception of the initial base. In contrast, Neurath adopted an anti-foundationalist, coherentist position, famously illustrating his view with the analogy of rebuilding a ship while continuously sailing on the open sea.

Friedrich Waismann introduced the concept of open texture to characterize the inherent potential for vagueness within empirical statements. Waismann did not complete a planned book, Logik, Sprache, Philosophie, which was intended to disseminate the principles of logical positivism to a broader readership.

Carnap and Reichenbach co-founded the journal Erkenntnis. Carnap proposed resolving philosophical issues through "semantic ascent," which involved discussing language itself rather than the objects it describes. He further differentiated between inconsequential internal questions and nonsensical external questions. His most notable contributions include works such as Der logische Aufbau der Welt (translated as The Logical Structure of the World, 1967) and The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language (1959).

A number of logical positivists, including Neurath, Waismann, Hans Hahn, and Reichenbach, were Jewish. Other members, such as Carnap, were gentiles but held socialist or pacifist convictions. The rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism in 1933 prompted many members of the Vienna and Berlin Circles to seek refuge in Britain and the United States. This migration significantly contributed to the increased prominence of logical positivism and analytic philosophy within anglophone nations.

In 1936, Moritz Schlick was assassinated in Vienna by his former student, Hans Nelböck. Concurrently, A. J. Ayer's publication, Language, Truth and Logic, served to introduce logical positivism to the English-speaking intellectual community.

Ordinary Language Philosophy

Following World War II, analytic philosophy shifted its focus towards ordinary language philosophy, diverging from the earlier emphasis on ideal language philosophy. Instead of employing logical constructions, philosophers began to prioritize the analysis of natural language. This movement encompassed two primary branches: the later philosophy of Wittgenstein and the Oxford school of thought.

The Later Wittgenstein

Wittgenstein's later philosophical contributions, notably articulated in the posthumously published Philosophical Investigations (1953), represented a significant departure from his earlier work, the Tractatus. Consequently, scholars often distinguish between "early Wittgenstein" and "later Wittgenstein" as if referring to two distinct philosophical figures.

Ramsey's Influence

Frank Ramsey's critiques concerning the "color-exclusion problem" prompted some of Wittgenstein's initial reservations regarding his early philosophical tenets. In the Tractatus, Wittgenstein posited that logical necessity constituted the sole form of necessity. However, the principle that no spatial point can simultaneously exhibit two distinct colors appears to be a necessary truth, yet not a logically derivable one. Wittgenstein addressed Ramsey's arguments in "Some Remarks on Logical Form" (1929), which remained his only published academic paper. Ramsey tragically passed away from jaundice the following year at the age of 26.

Sraffa's Illustrative Gesture

Norman Malcolm notably attributes Wittgenstein's conceptual departure from his earlier philosophical framework to Piero Sraffa, specifically through an unconventional gesture:

Wittgenstein was insisting that a proposition and what it describes must have the same 'logical form', the same 'logical multiplicity'. Sraffa made a gesture, familiar to Neapolitans as meaning something like disgust or contempt, of brushing the underneath of his chin with an outward sweep of the fingertips of one hand. And he asked: 'What is the logical form of that?'

Before the publication of the Philosophical Investigations, figures such as John Wisdom and Rush Rhees constituted some of the limited sources of insight into Wittgenstein's later philosophical developments; an example is Wisdom's 1952 work, Other minds, which addressed the problem of other minds. A recurring theme in both early and later Wittgensteinian thought is the assertion that "Philosophy is a battle against the bewitchment of our intelligence by means of language." Wittgenstein contended that philosophers had frequently misused language and posed nonsensical questions, viewing his role as one "to show the fly the way out of the fly bottle."

The later Wittgenstein developed a therapeutic methodology, introducing the concept of a "language-game" as a "form of life." He defined a "language-game" as a linguistic system simpler than a complete language. Wittgenstein asserted that the meaning of a word or sentence is derived solely from the "rule" governing the specific "game" in which it is employed. For instance, the exclamation "Water!" could, depending on its context, function as a command, a response to an inquiry, or another mode of communication. In contrast to his earlier picture theory of meaning, the later Wittgenstein championed a theory of meaning as use, wherein words acquire their definitions through their practical application within a given language-game.

The concept of family resemblance posits that entities believed to share a single, essential common feature might instead be linked by a network of overlapping similarities, with no individual characteristic present in all members. Wittgenstein utilized games as a paradigmatic illustration of this concept, establishing them as the quintessential example of a group unified by family resemblance.

The work Philosophical Investigations additionally presents the private language argument. Wittgenstein further challenges the feasibility of a private language through the beetle-in-a-box thought experiment. He invites readers to envision a scenario where each individual possesses a box containing an object that everyone intends to designate as a beetle. Moreover, it is stipulated that no one can observe the contents of another's box. In this hypothetical circumstance, Wittgenstein asserts that the term "beetle" becomes devoid of meaning.

Wittgenstein famously employed the duck-rabbit, an ambiguous visual representation, to delineate two distinct modes of perception: "seeing that" in contrast to "seeing as."

Oxford Philosophy

"Oxford philosophy" constituted the alternative trajectory within ordinary language philosophy, distinguishing itself from the preceding analytic philosophers associated with Cambridge. Drawing inspiration from Moore's emphasis on common sense and the later Wittgenstein's quietism, Oxford philosophers contended that everyday language inherently encapsulated numerous nuanced distinctions often overlooked by conventional philosophical inquiry. Gilbert Ryle, Peter Strawson, and John L. Austin emerged as the foremost figures within this school.

Ryle

In his 1949 work, The Concept of Mind, Ryle critiqued Cartesian dualism, advocating for the rejection of "Descartes' myth" of the "ghost in the machine" through the identification of "category errors." Ryle likened Descartes' misconception to observing a campus, its buildings, faculty, and students, yet subsequently inquiring, "Where is the university?"

Strawson

Strawson gained initial recognition with his 1950 article "On Referring," which presented a critique of Russell's theory of descriptions. According to Strawson's perspective, the application of a description inherently presupposes the existence of the entity it purports to describe. His 1959 book, Individuals, delves into our understanding of fundamental particulars.

Austin

In the posthumously published 1962 work, How to Do Things with Words, Austin articulated the theory of speech acts, highlighting the capacity of language to perform actions (for instance, "I promise") rather than merely stating facts. This concept prompted a "performative turn" across various academic disciplines. Furthermore, in his 1962 publication Sense and Sensibilia, Austin presented criticisms of sense-data theories.

International Dissemination

Australia and New Zealand

Samuel Alexander's realist philosophy significantly impacted Australian thought. The emergence of Australian realism as a distinct school commenced in 1927 when John Anderson assumed the Challis Chair of Philosophy at the University of Sydney. The American philosopher David Lewis subsequently developed a strong connection with Australia, engaging with its philosophical community through nearly annual visits spanning over three decades. In New Zealand, J. N. Findlay, a South African student of the Austrian realist Ernst Mally, held a teaching position at the University of Otago. Karl Popper delivered lectures at Canterbury University College in Christchurch.

Sweden and Finland

In Sweden, Axel Hägerström diverged from Christopher Jacob Boström's idealism, thereby establishing the Uppsala School of Philosophy. Eino Kaila, a Finnish philosopher, is credited with founding Finnish analytic philosophy. Georg Henrik von Wright, a student of Kaila, succeeded Wittgenstein at Cambridge in 1948.

China

The Chinese philosopher Zhang Shenfu initially introduced Russell's concepts to China and subsequently translated the Tractatus. In 1920, Russell visited China at the invitation of Liang Qichao, marking the commencement of the first phase of analytic philosophy in the country. Tscha Hung later introduced logical positivism to China with his 1945 work, The Philosophy of the Vienna Circle. The second phase witnessed the dissemination of analytic philosophy by scholars like Jin Yuelin and Hong Qian, until Communist political pressures curtailed such academic pursuits.

Following the reforms and opening-up policies of the 1970s, analytic philosophy in China entered its third phase, evolving into an active and expanding field of academic inquiry.

Metaphysics

The latter half of the twentieth century witnessed the decline of logical positivism within analytic philosophy, concurrently with a resurgence of metaphysical theorizing.

Sellars

Wilfrid Sellars, a prominent Kant scholar and son of Roy Wood Sellars, significantly transformed both the methodology and substance of philosophy in the United States. His critique of the "Myth of the Given," articulated in Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind (1956), contested logical positivism by refuting theories based on sense-data and knowledge by acquaintance. In "Philosophy and the Scientific Image of Man" (1962), Sellars's critical realism delineates between the "manifest image" and the "scientific image" of reality. Sellars's objective of developing a synoptic philosophy that integrates everyday and scientific perspectives on reality forms the foundation of the Pittsburgh School, a philosophical movement whose notable members include Robert Brandom, John McDowell, and John Haugeland.

Quine

W. V. O. Quine, a distinguished Harvard philosopher, profoundly influenced subsequent philosophical discourse and is widely acknowledged as "one of the most influential philosophers of the twentieth century." He is frequently regarded as the preeminent philosopher of the latter half of the twentieth century, often positioned as the successor to Wittgenstein's philosophical legacy.

Quine studied under Carnap. As an empiricist, he aimed to naturalize philosophy, viewing it as continuous with science, differentiated primarily by its status as the most general scientific discipline. However, Quine expressed skepticism regarding conventional theories of meaning, advocating for semantic holism and ontological relativity as alternatives to logical positivism. These concepts posit that the meaning of any term within a statement is contingent upon an extensive network of knowledge and belief, reflecting the speaker's comprehensive worldview.

Word and Object

In his magnum opus, Word and Object (1960), Quine introduces the concept of radical translation, which serves as an exposition of his theory of the indeterminacy of translation and specifically aims to demonstrate the inscrutability of reference. The gavagai thought experiment describes a linguist attempting to ascertain the meaning of the expression gavagai when uttered by a speaker of an unknown indigenous language upon observing a rabbit. Initially, it appears that gavagai directly translates to rabbit. Quine, however, highlights the impossibility of definitively determining whether the speaker might have intended, for example, "undetached rabbit-part" (such as an ear) or various other interpretations.

On What There Is

Quine's ontological essay, "On What There Is" (1948), clarifies Russell's theory of descriptions. Quine employs Pegasus as an example, rather than "the present King of France," and designates the problem of nonexistence as Plato's beard. The essay articulates Quine's renowned dictum on ontological commitment: "To be is to be the value of a variable." One incurs commitment to the entities posited by a theory through the application of the existential quantifier, as in "There are some so-and-sos." Conversely, other parts of speech do not entail ontological commitment and are thus considered syncategorematic by Quine.

Two Dogmas of Empiricism

Among the significant developments contributing to the decline of logical positivism and the resurgence of metaphysics was Quine's critique of the analytic–synthetic distinction, presented in "Two Dogmas of Empiricism" (1951). This paper, published in The Philosophical Review, is "sometimes regarded as the most important in all of twentieth-century philosophy." This seminal paper established Quine as the preeminent philosopher in America prior to Kripke's rise.

Kripke

Saul Kripke is widely credited with revitalizing theories of essence and identity, re-establishing them as legitimate subjects for philosophical inquiry. He significantly influenced philosophical discourse by contending that deficiencies in prevalent theories of descriptions and proper names reveal broader misconceptions concerning the metaphysics of modality, encompassing necessity and possibility.

Pragmatist C. I. Lewis developed modal logic to address the paradoxes inherent in material implication. Carnap further contributed to modal logic through works such as Meaning and Necessity (1947). Ruth Barcan Marcus introduced the now-standard "box" operator for necessity and "diamond" operator for possibility within her analysis of the Barcan formula. Kripke subsequently provided a semantics for modal logic; both he and Barcan argued that identity constitutes a necessary relation.

Naming and Necessity

Saul Kripke's Naming and Necessity (1980) holds particular significance. One scholar notes that Naming and Necessity "played a large role in the implicit, but widespread, rejection of the view—so popular among ordinary language philosophers—that philosophy is nothing more than the analysis of language." Kripke posited that proper names function as rigid designators, meaning they refer to the same entity across all possible worlds, unlike descriptive phrases. For instance, while the "winner of the 1968 US presidential election" could hypothetically have been Hubert Humphrey instead of Richard Nixon, the name "Richard Nixon" invariably designates the individual Richard Nixon, irrespective of the election's outcome.

Immanuel Kant, in his Critique of Pure Reason (1781), asserted that necessity serves as the criterion for a priori knowledge. Kripke, however, contended that necessity is a metaphysical concept distinct from the epistemic notion of a priori, and that certain necessary truths can be known a posteriori. Examples include the chemical composition of water as H§89§O or gold's atomic number 79. Hilary Putnam, a colleague of Kripke and Quine, advocated for realism concerning natural kinds, employing his Twin Earth thought experiment to support the argument that water constitutes a natural kind.

David Lewis

David Lewis developed and defended several intricate metaphysical theories. In works such as On the Plurality of Worlds (1986) and Counterfactuals (1973), Lewis championed modal realism and counterpart theory, which posits the existence of real, concrete possible worlds, while rejecting any "ersatz" interpretations of possibility. Lewis maintained that "actual" is merely an indexical term used to label the world one currently inhabits. Applying Quine's principle of ontological commitment, Lewis argued that the statement "There are other ways things could have been" necessitates, by his own reasoning, the genuine existence of these alternative possibilities. He also advocated for Humean supervenience and a counterfactual theory of causation, both building upon Humean perspectives.

Truth

Gottlob Frege critically examined conventional theories of truth and, at times, endorsed a deflationary or redundancy theory of truth. This theory suggests that the predicate "is true" adds no substantive meaning beyond the statement to which it is ascribed. Frank Ramsey similarly advocated for a redundancy theory.

Alfred Tarski proposed an influential semantic theory of truth, defining truth as a property inherent in sentences. Tarski's semantic methodologies ultimately led to the development of model theory, in contrast to proof theory.

In Truth-Makers (1984), Kevin Mulligan, Peter Simons, and Barry Smith introduced the concept of a truth-maker as a contribution to the correspondence theory of truth. A truth-maker is distinguished from a truth-bearer, with the truth of a truth-bearer being grounded by its corresponding truth-maker.

Universals

Addressing the philosophical problem of universals, the Australian philosopher David Armstrong advocated for a form of moderate realism. Conversely, David Lewis and Anthony Quinton defended nominalism.

Mereology

The Polish philosopher Stanisław Leśniewski, in collaboration with Nelson Goodman, established mereology, which is the formal study of parts and wholes. Initially conceived as a variant of nominalism intended to replace set theory, mereology has evolved into a broader discipline whose conceptual roots can arguably be traced back to the pre-Socratic era.

David Lewis coined the term 'atomless gunk' to describe entities not composed of fundamental simples, but rather infinitely divisible into progressively smaller parts. Peter Van Inwagen subscribes to mereological nihilism, with the notable exception of living beings, a position he terms organicism. According to mereological nihilism, composite objects like chairs do not exist; instead, there are only fundamental particles arranged in a chair-like configuration.

Personal identity

Since the publication of John Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), philosophers have extensively explored the problem of personal identity. Locke proposed that psychological continuity or memory constitutes the basis for an individual's identity over time. In contrast, Bernard Williams, in The Self and the Future (1970), argued for the opposing view, asserting that personal identity is fundamentally tied to bodily identity rather than mental continuity.

Derek Parfit, in his 1984 work Reasons and Persons, advocates a form of the bundle theory concerning personal identity. He proposes a thought experiment involving fission, where an individual divides into two, with each resulting person retaining half of the original brain, the other half being transplanted into a new body. David Lewis, conversely, supports perdurantism, conceptualizing individuals as four-dimensional entities, implying that a person at any given moment constitutes merely a temporal segment or "slice" of their complete being.

Free Will and Determinism

Peter van Inwagen's 1983 monograph, An Essay on Free Will, significantly contributed to the resurgence of libertarianism within mainstream analytic philosophy regarding the concept of free will. Van Inwagen introduced the "consequence argument" and coined the term "incompatibilism" to describe the view that free will and determinism are mutually exclusive, contrasting it with "compatibilism," which posits their compatibility. Similar arguments had been advanced earlier by Charlie Broad.

Principle of Sufficient Reason

Since the time of Leibniz, philosophers have engaged in discussions concerning the Principle of Sufficient Reason (PSR). Van Inwagen critiques the PSR, whereas Alexander Pruss offers a defense of it.

Philosophy of Time

The origins of analytic philosophy of time can be traced to British idealist John McTaggart's 1908 article, "The Unreality of Time." McTaggart differentiated between the dynamic, tensed A-theory of time, which posits a flow through past, present, and future, and the static, tenseless B-theory of time, which describes temporal relations as "earlier than," "simultaneous with," and "later than." Arthur Prior, the innovator of tense logic, championed the A-theory of time. The theory of special relativity, alongside David Lewis's perdurantism, appears to support a B-theory of time.

Eternalism posits that the past, present, and future possess equivalent ontological reality. Conversely, presentism asserts that only entities existing in the present moment are real. The moving spotlight theory represents a hybrid perspective, suggesting that all temporal moments exist, yet only one is currently present. The growing block theory, championed by Charlie Broad, maintains that only the past and present are real, with the future not yet existing; a reverse concept, the shrinking block, also exists.

Logical Pluralism

Many-valued and non-classical logics have gained prominence since the work of Polish logician Jan Łukasiewicz. Graham Priest, a proponent of dialetheism, rejects the law of non-contradiction, viewing this rejection as the most intuitive resolution for issues like the liar paradox. JC Beall, in collaboration with Greg Restall, is a leading figure in developing a widely debated form of logical pluralism, which contends that multiple correct logical systems exist.

Epistemology

Largely due to Edmund Gettier's 1963 paper "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?" and the subsequent "Gettier problem," epistemology has experienced a significant revival as a central area within analytic philosophy. Gettier utilized instances of epistemic luck to present counterexamples challenging the "justified true belief" (JTB) definition of knowledge, a concept traceable to Plato's dialogue Theaetetus. Philosophers have subsequently proposed alternative accounts to the JTB framework or developed refined theories of justification to address Gettier's examples. For instance, Timothy Williamson contends in his 2000 work Knowledge and Its Limits that knowledge is sui generis and inherently indefinable.

Theories of Justification

American philosopher Roderick Chisholm advocated for foundationalism. Michael Huemer supports a form of foundationalism known as phenomenal conservatism. Quine championed coherentism, conceptualizing knowledge as a "web of belief," and posited that all beliefs are subject to revision, though some are held with greater conviction and thus maintained steadfastly. Ernest Sosa introduced virtue epistemology in his 1980 essay "The Raft and the Pyramid." Alvin Goldman formulated a causal theory of knowledge.

The ongoing debate between internalism and externalism persists within analytic philosophy. Huemer is an internalist. Goldman is an externalist recognized for pioneering reliabilism, a prominent variant of externalism. Most externalists repudiate the KK thesis, a concept that has been contentious since Jaakko Hintikka's introduction of epistemic logic in 1962. Fallibilists frequently also reject the KK thesis.

Problem of the Criterion

The problem of the criterion, a subject of discussion since antiquity, is elaborated by Chisholm in his 1966 work Theory of Knowledge through two fundamental sets of questions:

1. What constitutes our knowledge, or what is the scope of our epistemic understanding?
2. How do we acquire knowledge, or what is the established criterion for determining the presence of knowledge in a specific instance?

Prioritizing the former inquiry is termed particularism, while addressing the latter first is known as methodism. A third approach, skepticism, involves questioning the very existence of knowledge.

Epistemic Closure

Epistemic closure posits that knowledge is preserved under entailment. Stated differently, this principle asserts that if a subject ${\displaystyle S}$ possesses knowledge of ${\displaystyle p}$, and ${\displaystyle S}$ recognizes that ${\displaystyle p}$ logically implies ${\displaystyle q}$, then ${\displaystyle S}$ can subsequently acquire knowledge of ${\displaystyle q}$. This closure principle is incorporated into most epistemological theories and underpins numerous skeptical arguments, such as the dream argument. In his 1939 work, Proof of An External World, G. E. Moore employed closure within his renowned anti-skeptical "here is one hand" argument. Ludwig Wittgenstein, shortly before his death, authored On Certainty (1969), published posthumously, as a direct response to Moore's position.

Although the closure principle is widely considered intuitive, certain philosophers, including Fred Dretske, with his relevant alternatives theory, and Robert Nozick, with his truth-tracking theory of knowledge presented in Philosophical Explanations (1981), have advanced arguments against its validity. Conversely, some scholars contend that the principle holds true only within particular contexts.

Induction

In his 1955 work, Fact, Fiction, and Forecast, Nelson Goodman presented the "new riddle of induction," a term coined to draw a parallel with Hume's traditional problem of induction. Goodman's notable illustration involved the introduction of the predicates "grue" and "bleen." The predicate "grue" describes objects that are green prior to an arbitrary time t and blue thereafter, while "bleen" characterizes objects that are blue before time t and green subsequently. Consequently, the inductive inference "All emeralds are grue" would be considered true before time t, whereas "All emeralds are bleen" would be true after t.

Other Topics

Related research areas encompass discussions concerning specific instances of knowledge, the inherent value of knowledge, the fundamental nature of evidence, the function of intuitions in the process of justification, and the concept of abduction.

Ethics

Initially, early analytic philosophers frequently considered ethics insufficiently rigorous to warrant significant scholarly focus. The discipline only gained acceptance with the advent of ordinary-language philosophy. Over time, analytic philosophers have progressively delineated three primary categories of moral philosophy.

• Meta-ethics, which involves the investigation of moral terminology and conceptual frameworks;
• Normative ethics, which focuses on the examination and formulation of ethical judgments;
• Applied ethics, which entails the application of normative principles to particular, practical dilemmas.

Meta-ethics

Beyond Hume's renowned is–ought problem, twentieth-century meta-ethics developed along two distinct original trajectories.

Principia Ethica

The initial trajectory originates from G. E. Moore's 1903 publication, Principia Ethica, which advocates for non-naturalist moral realism. This seminal work is recognized for introducing the open question argument and identifying the naturalistic fallacy, both of which became significant subjects for analytic philosophers. Moore posited that goodness is sui generis, representing a simple, undefinable, and non-natural property. Modern philosophers, including Russ Shafer-Landau in his 2003 book Moral Realism: A Defence, continue to uphold ethical non-naturalism.

Following G.E. Moore's contributions, the field of analytic philosophy experienced a period of reduced engagement with ethics until the 1950s and 1960s, when traditional moral philosophy saw a resurgence of interest. During this time, Philippa Foot championed naturalist moral realism and authored several influential essays that critiqued alternative theories. Foot is also credited with introducing the renowned "trolley problem" into ethical discussions. Elizabeth Anscombe, a student and associate of Wittgenstein, published the monograph Intention (1957), which offered a significant analysis of action. Her subsequent article, "Modern Moral Philosophy" (1958), challenged the traditional is–ought problem, a critique echoed by J. O. Urmson's article "On Grading."

Emotivism

A second significant development in this philosophical trajectory originated from logical positivism, which posited that statements lacking empirical verifiability were devoid of meaning. Consequently, proponents of this view largely eschewed normative ethics in favor of meta-ethics. Logical positivists contended that value statements, encompassing all ethical and aesthetic judgments, were non-cognitive. This led to the adoption of emotivism, also termed the "hurrah/boo theory," which asserts that value judgments primarily express the speaker's emotional attitude. From this perspective, declaring "Murder is wrong" is functionally equivalent to exclaiming "Boo to murder" or articulating the word "murder" with a distinct tone of disapproval.

Emotivism subsequently developed into more refined non-cognitivist frameworks, notably Charles Stevenson's expressivism, articulated in Ethics and Language (1944),, and R. M. Hare's universal prescriptivism, which drew upon Austin's philosophy of speech acts. Prominent anti-realist moral theorists also include the Australian philosopher John Mackie, who, in his 1977 work Ethics: Inventing Right And Wrong, advanced error theory and the argument from queerness. Bernard Williams significantly impacted ethical discourse by championing a form of moral relativism and critiquing alternative theoretical approaches.

Normative Ethics

With the waning influence of logical positivism, analytic philosophers redirected their attention to normative ethics. Currently, the field of normative ethics is predominantly shaped by three principal schools of thought: consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics.

Initially, consequentialism, particularly utilitarianism, stood as the sole non-skeptical theory that maintained widespread acceptance among analytic philosophers. Henry Sidgwick's seminal work, The Methods of Ethics (1874), provided a foundational exposition of this prevalent theory. Robert Nozick, however, presented a critique of utilitarianism through his concept of the utility monster. The publication of John Rawls's A Theory of Justice (1971) revitalized scholarly interest in Kantian, deontological ethical philosophy, a perspective also championed by Thomas Nagel.

The collaborative efforts of Anscombe, Foot, and Alasdair Macintyre, particularly Macintyre's influential After Virtue (1981), catalyzed a resurgence of interest in Aristotle's virtue ethical framework. This heightened focus on virtue ethics has been characterized by some scholars as the "aretaic turn." Paralleling Aristotle's concept of eudaimonia, Władysław Tatarkiewicz advanced a definition of happiness as a comprehensive and enduring contentment with one's entire existence.

Applied Ethics

Commencing around 1970, a notable development within analytic philosophy has been the rise of applied ethics. This field frequently addresses complex dilemmas arising from technological advancements and novel scientific discoveries. Areas of particular focus encompass educational ethics, including issues of equal opportunity and disciplinary practices in schools; environmental ethics; animal rights; and numerous challenges posed by progress in medical science, such as abortion and euthanasia. Peter Singer, for instance, advocates for vegetarianism in his 1975 work, Animal Liberation.

Political Philosophy

H. L. A. Hart, an ordinary language philosopher, emerged as one of the most influential figures in the philosophy of law, playing a pivotal role in the advancement of legal positivism, which gained widespread recognition through his book The Concept of Law (1961). Drawing inspiration from both Hart and Ronald Dworkin, Matthew Kramer subsequently articulated a theory of ethical (or normative) legal positivism.

Liberalism

During the Second World War, Karl Popper articulated a defense of the open society in his 1945 publication, The Open Society and its Enemies. Isaiah Berlin exerted a profound and enduring influence with his 1958 lecture, "Two Concepts of Liberty." In this work, Berlin delineated 'negative liberty' as the absence of coercion or external interference in an individual's private actions. Conversely, 'positive liberty' was conceptualized as self-mastery, shifting the inquiry from what one is free *from* to what one is free *to do*.

Current analytic political philosophy is significantly indebted to John Rawls, who, through a series of papers—most notably "Two Concepts of Rules" (1955) and "Justice as Fairness" (1958)—and his 1971 book A Theory of Justice, developed a sophisticated defense of a generally liberal egalitarian perspective on distributive justice. Rawls also introduced the thought experiment known as the veil of ignorance.

Robert Nozick, a colleague of Rawls, presented a defense of free-market libertarianism in his 1974 book, Anarchy, State, and Utopia. This work is notable for the Wilt Chamberlain argument. Nozick also famously considered an objection to the labor theory of property, as articulated in Locke's 1689 work, Second Treatise on Government:

[W]hy isn't mixing what I own with what I don't own a way of losing what I own rather than a way of gaining what I don't? If I own a can of tomato juice and spill it in the sea so that its molecules (made radioactive, so I can check this) mingle evenly throughout the sea, do I thereby come to own the sea, or have I foolishly dissipated my tomato juice?

Analytical Marxism

Another significant development was the school of analytical Marxism, which applies analytic techniques to the theories of Karl Marx and his successors. G. A. Cohen is its most recognized member; his 1978 book, Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence, defends Marx's historical materialism and is generally considered the genesis of this school. Cohen rejected the labor theory of value, instead describing the structure of proletarian unfreedom by emphasizing power and freedom over labor-power and value. Other prominent analytical Marxists include economist John Roemer, social scientist Jon Elster, and sociologist Erik Olin Wright. These later philosophers advanced Cohen's work by incorporating modern social science methodologies, such as rational choice theory.

Although classified as a continental philosopher, Jürgen Habermas, a theorist from the Frankfurt School, represents another influential—though controversial—figure in contemporary analytic political philosophy, whose social theory integrates elements of social science, Marxism, neo-Kantianism, and pragmatism.

Communitarianism

Communitarian thinkers such as Alasdair MacIntyre, Charles Taylor, Michael Walzer, and Michael Sandel employ analytic methodologies to challenge liberal assumptions. Specifically, communitarians question whether an individual can be conceptualized independently of the community in which they are raised and reside. While rooted in the analytic tradition, its leading proponents frequently engage extensively with figures typically associated with continental philosophy, notably Hegel and Friedrich Nietzsche.

Other Critics of Liberalism

Additional critiques of liberalism include feminist perspectives offered by Catharine MacKinnon and Andrea Dworkin, as well as multiculturalist analyses from Amy Gutmann, Charles Taylor, and left-libertarians like Hillel Steiner.

Aesthetics

While pragmatist George Santayana authored The Sense of Beauty (1896) and British idealist R. G. Collingwood developed a theory of aesthetic expressivism in The Principles of Art (1938), aesthetics was not explored using the analytic style until the 1950s and 1960s by figures such as Susanne Langer, Frank Sibley, Morris Weitz, and Nelson Goodman. Since Goodman's Languages of Art (1968), aesthetics has flourished as a discipline within analytic philosophy.

Definitions of Art

Sibley, Weitz, and Goodman were proponents of anti-essentialism. In his 1956 essay "The Role of Theory in Aesthetics," Weitz famously contended that necessary and sufficient conditions for the concept of 'art' would never exist because it constitutes an "open concept." Goodman, conversely, posited that art is not fundamentally distinct from science, viewing it as another branch of epistemology.

Arthur Danto proposed an "institutional definition of art" in his 1964 essay "The Artworld," where he coined the term "artworld" (distinguishing it from the existing "art world" despite their shared meaning) to denote cultural context or "an atmosphere of art theory." George Dickie similarly asserted that "a work of art in the classificatory sense is 1) an artifact 2) on which some person or persons acting on behalf of a certain social institution (the artworld) has conferred the status of candidate for appreciation." Dickie's student, Noël Carroll, is a leading philosopher of art, contributing significantly to the philosophy of film.

A historical definition of art, notably articulated by Jerrold Levinson, posits that "a work of art is a thing intended for regard-as-a-work-of-art: regard in any of the ways works of art existing prior to it have been correctly regarded." Władysław Tatarkiewicz, a distinguished historian of aesthetics, identified six fundamental conditions for the manifestation of art: beauty, form, representation, the reproduction of reality, artistic expression, and innovation. Nicholas Wolterstorff, in contrast, emphasizes the social dimension of art, viewing it as an active engagement rather than mere contemplation. Prominent figures such as Langer, Levinson, and Wolterstorff have all made substantial contributions to the philosophy of music.

Beauty

Guy Sircello's research led to the development of novel analytical theories concerning love, sublimity, and beauty. Sircello conceptualized beauty as an objective, qualitative property. One scholar suggests that Sircello's theoretical framework bears resemblance to that of Hume. Mary Mothersill endeavored to re-establish earlier understandings of beauty in her 1984 work, Beauty Restored. Roger Scruton also proposed theories of beauty, and according to Kant scholar Paul Guyer, Scruton is considered "the most significant British aesthetician" after Wollheim. Scruton's contributions extended to the philosophy of architecture.

Paradox of Fiction

The paradox of fiction was introduced by Colin Radford and Michael Weston in their 1975 paper, "How Can We Be Moved by the Fate of Anna Karenina?" This seminal work explores emotional responses to fictional narratives, exemplified by Leo Tolstoy's novel Anna Karenina. The central inquiry revolves around how individuals can experience emotional reactions to entities that lack real-world existence. The paper concluded that such emotional responses to fiction are inherently irrational. American philosopher Kendall Walton subsequently addressed this paradox in his 1978 paper, "Fearing Fictions," which significantly influenced the development of make-believe theory.

Philosophy of Language

The philosophy of language continues to be profoundly shaped by the contributions of earlier scholars.

Semantics

One scholar asserts that Naming and Necessity stands as one of the most pivotal works in the philosophy of language. Saul Kripke notably contested the descriptivist theory by proposing a causal theory of reference. Similarly, Ruth Barcan Marcus challenged descriptivism through her direct reference theory, specifically a tag theory of names. Keith Donnellan also contributed to the critique of descriptivism.

Hilary Putnam employed the Twin Earth and brain-in-a-vat thought experiments to support semantic externalism, the proposition that word meanings are not solely psychological constructs. Donald Davidson similarly advocated for semantic externalism through the Swampman thought experiment. Tyler Burge further contributed to this discussion with his thought experiment involving arthritis in one's thigh.

In his 1982 work, Wittgenstein on Rules and Private Language, Kripke presented a skeptical paradox concerning rule-following, which fundamentally questions the very possibility of adhering to rules and, consequently, the concept of meaning itself. Kripke characterized this paradox as "the most radical and original skeptical problem that philosophy has seen to date." The term "Kripkenstein" has been coined to denote a hypothetical individual embodying the perspectives articulated in Kripke's interpretation of Wittgenstein.

Alonzo Church was a pioneer in the field of intensional logic, while the Czech philosopher Pavel Tichý subsequently developed transparent intensional logic.

Pragmatics

Paul Grice, through his maxims and theory of implicature, established the foundational principles of pragmatics as a distinct discipline. Austin and John Searle also significantly influenced this field. Pragmatics primarily investigates deixis, presuppositions, and other context-dependent characteristics of language.

Philosophy of Mind

Within analytic philosophy, the focus has arguably shifted from the philosophy of language to the philosophy of mind. Two fundamental concepts prevalent in the analytic philosophy of mind are intentionality, previously discussed, and qualia, a term initially introduced by C. I. Lewis.

Physicalism

Emergent materialism posits that mental properties arise as novel characteristics within complex material systems. This perspective can be categorized into two forms: one that denies mental causation and another that permits causal effects. John Searle championed a version of the latter, termed biological naturalism. The alternative primary category of materialist viewpoints in the philosophy of mind is non-emergent (or non-emergentist) materialism, which encompasses philosophical behaviorism, type identity theory (also known as reductive materialism), functionalism, and pure physicalism (or eliminative materialism).

Behaviorism

Influenced by logical positivism, behaviorism emerged as the preeminent theory of mind in analytic philosophy during the first half of the 20th century. Behaviorists posited that statements concerning the mind were synonymous with statements regarding observable behavior and behavioral dispositions, or alternatively, that mental states themselves were directly equivalent to such behaviors and dispositions. Hilary Putnam critiqued behaviorism, contending that it conflated the symptoms of mental states with the states themselves, exemplified by his hypothetical "super Spartans" who exhibit no outward signs of pain.

Type Identity

Subsequently, behaviorism's prominence diminished, yielding to either type identity theory or functionalism. Type identity theory, also known as type physicalism, posited that mental states are identical to specific brain states. Jack Smart and Ullin Place, former students of Ryle at the University of Adelaide, advocated for type physicalism. Putnam and other philosophers critiqued type identity theory, employing the concept of multiple realizability. This critique subsequently led to the development of anomalous monism.

Functionalism

Functionalism continues to be the prevailing theory. Computationalism represents a specific form of functionalism. This perspective was initially linked to Sellars. Putnam also espoused functionalism. Jerry Fodor, another proponent of functionalism, is recognized for advancing the modularity of mind, a theory asserting innateness. Fodor additionally proposed the language of thought hypothesis, which characterizes thought as possessing a syntactic or compositional structure, occasionally referred to as mentalese. Searle's Chinese room argument challenged functionalism, positing that although a computer can process syntax, it cannot genuinely comprehend semantics. Ned Block's China brain thought experiment presents a comparable critique.

Eliminativism

Eliminative materialism is primarily linked to Paul and Patricia Churchland, who reject the existence of propositional attitudes, and to Daniel Dennett, who, in works such as Consciousness Explained (1991), is widely regarded as an eliminativist concerning qualia and the phenomenal aspects of consciousness (though not intentionality). Dennett is also credited with coining the term "intuition pump." Thomas Nagel's influential paper "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?" presented a challenge to the physicalist explanation of mind, as did Frank Jackson's knowledge argument, which advocates for the existence of qualia.

Dualism

Within analytic philosophy, a number of philosophers have espoused dualism, with property dualism experiencing a recent resurgence, notably championed by David Chalmers. Chalmers introduced the concept of the hard problem of consciousness. He has critiqued interactionism and expressed an affinity for neutral monism. Kripke also advanced a significant argument in favor of dualism. Epiphenomenalism, which posits that mental events are caused by physical brain events but exert no causal influence in return, is occasionally categorized as a form of property dualism.

Panpsychism

Panpsychism represents another perspective, asserting that mentality is a fundamental and pervasive aspect of the natural world. Unlike idealism, panpsychism distinguishes itself by maintaining a belief in the existence of matter.

Perception and Consciousness

Recently, research within the philosophy of mind has predominantly centered on consciousness and the philosophy of perception. The homunculus argument constitutes a common objection leveled against numerous earlier theories of perception. Although a general consensus has emerged regarding the global neuronal workspace model of consciousness, considerable debate persists concerning its specific details. Prominent theories within analytic philosophy include Searle's naive realism, Fred Dretske and Michael Tye's representationalism, Dennett's heterophenomenology, and the higher-order theories, exemplified by David M. Rosenthal's higher-order thought (HOT) model and David Armstrong and William Lycan's higher-order perception (HOP) model.

Philosophy of Mathematics

Kurt Gödel, a student of Hans Hahn from the Vienna Circle, formulated his incompleteness theorems, demonstrating that Principia Mathematica similarly failed to reduce arithmetic to logic and that Hilbert's program was ultimately unattainable. Ernst Zermelo and Abraham Fraenkel established Zermelo-Fraenkel Set Theory (ZFC), incorporating the axiom of choice. Quine subsequently developed his own system, designated as New Foundations.

Eugene Wigner's influential 1960 paper, "The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences," explores the fundamental question of why a formal discipline such as mathematics possesses practical applicability.

Hilbert's Hotel illustrates several counterintuitive characteristics of infinite sets. José Benardete, in his 1964 work Infinity: An Essay in Metaphysics, posited the actual existence of infinity, from which the Grim Reaper paradox originated. Conversely, finitists dispute the concept of infinity.

Analogous to the medieval discourse on universals, which involved realists, idealists, and nominalists, the philosophy of mathematics features a comparable debate among logicists (or Platonists), conceptualists (or intuitionists), and formalists.

Platonism

Gödel, a Platonist, proposed a distinct form of intuition enabling direct perception of mathematical entities. Quine and Putnam supported Platonism through the indispensability argument, while Edward Zalta developed abstract object theory. Crispin Wright and Bob Hale spearheaded a Neo-Fregean resurgence with their 1983 publication Frege's Conception of Numbers as Objects. Physicist Roger Penrose also adheres to mathematical Platonism, as evidenced in works such as his 2004 book The Road to Reality.

Structuralist Paul Benacerraf presented two prominent critiques of mathematical Platonism: one concerning identification and the other epistemological. Regarding the latter, Benacerraf contended that although Platonism accounts for mathematical semantics, it fails to concurrently elucidate mathematical knowledge, given the inherent difficulty in acquiring understanding of a distant, platonic object. Predicativism offers an additional alternative to Platonism, drawing upon Henri Poincaré's resolution to Russell's paradox. Furthermore, Aristotelian perspectives exist within mathematics, exemplified by scholars like Dale Jacquette.

Intuitionism

The intuitionists, a constructivist movement spearheaded by Dutch mathematician L. E. J. Brouwer, conceptualize mathematics as a cognitive construct rather than an objective truth. Brouwer's work also contributed to Wittgenstein's eventual rejection of the Tractatus.

Formalism

Formalists, notably represented by David Hilbert, regarded mathematics solely as the examination of formal axiomatic systems. Hartry Field advocated for mathematical fictionalism in his 1980 publication Science Without Numbers, asserting the dispensability of numbers.

Philosophy of religion

In Analytic Philosophy of Religion, James Franklin Harris observed:

...analytic philosophy has constituted a highly heterogeneous 'movement'.... certain manifestations of analytic philosophy have demonstrated considerable sympathy toward the philosophy of religion, furnishing a philosophical framework for addressing other more radical and antagonistic forms of analytic philosophy.

Historically, analytic philosophy largely eschewed the study of religion, often dismissing it as a metaphysical and consequently meaningless subject, consistent with logical positivist tenets. However, the decline of logical positivism spurred a resurgence of interest in the philosophy of religion, motivating philosophers to both introduce novel issues and re-examine enduring themes, including the existence of God, the rationality of belief, the nature of miracles, and the problem of evil, among others. The Society of Christian Philosophers was founded in 1978.

Reformed epistemology

Analytic philosophy provided the foundational framework for several sophisticated Christian arguments, notably those advanced by reformed epistemologists such as Alvin Plantinga, William Alston, and Nicholas Wolterstorff.

Plantinga was once characterized by Time magazine as "America's leading orthodox Protestant philosopher of God." His influential 1967 work, God and Other Minds, posits that belief in God constitutes a properly basic belief, analogous to the belief in other minds. Plantinga additionally formulated a modal ontological argument in his 1974 book The Nature of Necessity. He, alongside John Mackie and Antony Flew, engaged in discussions regarding the application of the free will defense as a resolution to the problem of evil. Plantinga subsequently published an epistemological trilogy: Warrant: The Current Debate (1993), Warrant and Proper Function (1993), and Warranted Christian Belief (2000). His evolutionary argument against naturalism asserts an inherent conflict in simultaneously affirming both evolution and naturalism.

Alston advocated for divine command theory. Robert Merrihew Adams similarly defended divine command theory and the virtue of faith. William Lane Craig champions the Kalam cosmological argument in his book bearing the same title.

Analytic Thomism

Catholic analytic philosophers, including Elizabeth Anscombe, Peter Geach, MacIntyre, Anthony Kenny, John Haldane, and Eleonore Stump, among others, were instrumental in the development of Analytic Thomism.

Orthodoxy

Richard Swinburne, an Orthodox convert, authored a trilogy of works advocating for the existence of God: The Coherence of Theism (1977), The Existence of God (1979), and Faith and Reason (1981). Swinburne's distinctive contribution lies in his assertion that God's existence is contingent, implying the possibility of non-existence, yet he maintains that God nonetheless exists as a fundamental, brute fact.

Wittgenstein and religion

The analytic philosophy of religion has extensively engaged with the work of Wittgenstein, particularly his interpretations of Søren Kierkegaard. During his service in the Austrian army in World War I, Wittgenstein encountered Leo Tolstoy's The Gospel in Brief (1896), an event that reportedly led to a significant religious conversion. Subsequently, philosophers associated with the "Swansea school," including Rush Rhees, Peter Winch, and D. Z. Phillips, established a distinct school of religious thought rooted in Wittgenstein's philosophy. Phillips later introduced the term "contemplative philosophy" in Philosophy's Cool Place (1999), drawing inspiration from a passage cited in Wittgenstein's Culture and Value (1980).

Philosophy of science

The prominence accorded to scientific evidence is largely attributable to philosophical commitments to scientific realism and naturalism. However, some thinkers, such as Friedrich Hayek in The Counter-Revolution of Science (1952), characterize the application of scientific methods within philosophy as scientism. Despite such critiques, science has progressively assumed a more significant role in analytic philosophy. For instance, the theory of special relativity has profoundly influenced the philosophy of time, and quantum physics is frequently a subject of discussion in debates concerning free will. Ernest Nagel's seminal work, The Structure of Science (1961), is widely regarded as having effectively established the field of philosophy of science.

Theories

Carl Hempel was a proponent of confirmation theory, also known as Bayesian epistemology, and is credited with introducing the renowned raven's paradox.

Responding to what he perceived as the excesses of logical positivism, Karl Popper, in The Logic of Scientific Discovery (1959), rejected conventional inductivist perspectives on the scientific method. Instead, he proposed a highly influential theory of falsification, which he employed to address the demarcation problem. Quine and the French scientist Pierre Duhem appeared to share analogous views in certain aspects. The Duhem–Quine thesis, also known as the problem of underdetermination, asserts that no scientific hypothesis can be comprehended in isolation, a position termed confirmation holism. Subsequent theoretical developments, building upon the work of Quine and Duhem, underscored the concept of theory-ladenness.

In reaction to both logical positivism and Popper's philosophy, the field became increasingly influenced by social constructivist and cognitive relativist theories of science. A pivotal figure in these discussions is Thomas Kuhn, whose work The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962) introduced the concept of paradigm shifts and initiated a "revolt against positivism," subsequently termed the "historical turn." Paul Feyerabend's Against Method (1975) further advanced this critique by advocating for epistemological anarchism, asserting the absence of universal rules governing scientific inquiry.

Branches

Philosophers such as Tim Maudlin specialize in the philosophy of physics. In The Metaphysics Within Physics (2007), Maudlin contends that philosophical inquiry must engage with physics and that scientific laws possess a sui generis nature. More recently, scholarship has emerged in the philosophy of chemistry, and the philosophy of biology has experienced substantial expansion, particularly driven by ongoing debates concerning the nature of evolution, especially natural selection. Daniel Dennett, with his book Darwin's Dangerous Idea (1995), which advocates for Neo-Darwinism, is a prominent figure in this discourse. Conversely, Jerry Fodor presents a critique of natural selection in What Darwin Got Wrong (2010).

The philosophy of social science has similarly garnered heightened attention. Peter Winch adopts a Wittgensteinian viewpoint in The Idea of a Social Science and its Relation to Philosophy (1958). Searle further contributed to social ontology and the theory of social constructs through his work The Construction of Social Reality (1995).

• History of logic
• Notes

Notes

References

Works cited

Articles

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