Atheism, in its broadest interpretation, signifies an absence of belief in the existence of deities. More specifically, it represents a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In its most precise formulation, atheism asserts the non-existence of deities. This concept stands in direct opposition to theism, which posits the existence of at least one deity.
Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there are no deities. Atheism is contrasted with theism, which is the belief that at least one deity exists.
Historically, atheistic perspectives are discernible in classical antiquity and early Indian philosophical traditions. In the Western context, the prevalence of atheism diminished following the rise of Christianity. The 16th century and the subsequent Age of Enlightenment witnessed a significant resurgence of atheistic discourse across Europe. Globally, atheism attained a prominent status during the 20th century. Current estimates indicate that individuals lacking theistic belief number between 500 million and 1.1 billion globally. Organizations advocating for atheism have consistently championed the autonomy of scientific inquiry, intellectual freedom, secular governance, and secular ethical frameworks.
Arguments supporting atheism encompass philosophical, scientific, and sociological methodologies. Key rationales for rejecting belief in deities include the absence of empirical evidence, the problem of evil, the argument concerning inconsistent revelations, the dismissal of unfalsifiable concepts, and the argument from nonbelief. Proponents of atheism assert that it represents a more parsimonious stance than theism, positing that individuals are innately devoid of belief in deities. Consequently, they argue that the onus of proof rests not upon the atheist to refute the existence of gods, but upon the theist to substantiate theistic claims.
Definition
Scholars exhibit divergence regarding the optimal definition and categorization of atheism, debating which supernatural entities qualify as deities, whether atheism constitutes a distinct philosophical position or merely an absence of belief, and if it necessitates a conscious, explicit rejection. Nevertheless, the prevailing convention defines atheism as an explicit opposition to theism. While atheism is sometimes considered compatible with agnosticism, it is also frequently presented in contrast to it.
Implicit vs. explicit
The ambiguity inherent in defining atheism is partly attributable to the varying interpretations of terms such as deity and god. The diverse and often disparate conceptions of God and deities contribute to divergent perspectives on the applicability of atheism. Historically, the ancient Romans labeled Christians as atheists due to their refusal to worship pagan deities. Over time, this perspective diminished as theism evolved to signify belief in any form of divinity. Regarding the scope of rejected phenomena, atheism can encompass the rejection of a singular deity's existence, as well as broader spiritual, supernatural, or transcendental concepts. Definitions of atheism also vary based on the level of conscious consideration an individual must give to the concept of deities to be classified as an atheist. One definition posits atheism as the mere absence of belief in the existence of any deities. Such a broad interpretation would encompass newborns and individuals who have not encountered theistic concepts. In 1772, Baron d'Holbach asserted that "All children are born Atheists; they have no idea of God." Similarly, George H. Smith proposed: "The individual unacquainted with theism is an atheist because they do not believe in a god. This category also includes a child possessing the conceptual capacity to comprehend these issues but remaining unaware of them. The absence of belief in god by such a child qualifies them as an atheist."
Implicit atheism is characterized as "the absence of theistic belief without a conscious rejection of it," whereas explicit atheism denotes the conscious rejection of such belief. Conventionally, atheism is defined by an explicit opposition to theism. In his work on "philosophical atheism," Ernest Nagel argued against classifying the mere absence of theistic belief as a form of atheism. Graham Oppy categorizes individuals who have never contemplated the concept of a god, such as one-month-old infants, as innocents.
Negative vs. positive
Philosophers such as Antony Flew and Michael Martin have distinguished between positive (strong or hard) atheism and negative (weak or soft) atheism. Positive atheism explicitly asserts the non-existence of deities. Conversely, negative atheism encompasses all other expressions of non-theism. Under this framework, individuals who are not theists are classified as either negative or positive atheists. For instance, Michael Martin contends that agnosticism inherently involves negative atheism. The concept of agnostic atheism integrates both atheistic and agnostic perspectives. Nevertheless, numerous agnostics perceive their position as fundamentally separate from atheism.
Proponents of atheism contend that unverified religious claims warrant the same degree of skepticism as any other unsubstantiated propositions. Atheistic critiques of agnosticism assert that the inability to prove a deity's existence does not equate to an equal probability for its presence or absence. Australian philosopher J.J.C. Smart posits that "sometimes a person who is really an atheist may describe herself, even passionately, as an agnostic because of unreasonable generalized philosophical skepticism which would preclude us from saying that we know anything whatever, except perhaps the truths of mathematics and formal logic." Consequently, certain atheist authors, including Richard Dawkins, advocate for differentiating theist, agnostic, and atheist stances along a continuum of theistic probability, reflecting the likelihood each assigns to the proposition "God exists."
Prior to the 18th century, the concept of God's existence was so universally embraced in the Western world that the very notion of genuine atheism was often doubted. This perspective is termed theistic innatism, which posits that all individuals possess an innate belief in God from birth, implying that atheists are merely in a state of denial. Certain atheists have, however, questioned the necessity of the term "atheism" itself. For instance, in his work Letter to a Christian Nation, Sam Harris articulated:
In fact, "atheism" is a term that should not even exist. No one ever needs to identify himself as a "non-astrologer" or a "non-alchemist". We do not have words for people who doubt that Elvis is still alive or that aliens have traversed the galaxy only to molest ranchers and their cattle. Atheism is nothing more than the noises reasonable people make in the presence of unjustified religious beliefs.
Etymology
In early Ancient Greek, the adjective átheos (ἄθεος), derived from the privative prefix ἀ- combined with θεός ("god"), signified "godless." Initially, it functioned as a pejorative term, broadly conveying "ungodly" or "impious." By the 5th century BCE, the term evolved to denote a more intentional and active form of godlessness, implying a "severing of relations with the gods" or an explicit "denial of the gods." Subsequently, the term ἀσεβής (asebēs) was employed to describe individuals who impiously rejected or dishonored local deities, even if they adhered to other divine beliefs. Contemporary translations of classical texts occasionally render átheos as "atheistic." The corresponding abstract noun was ἀθεότης (atheotēs), meaning "atheism." Cicero later transliterated this Greek term into the Latin átheos. This term was frequently utilized in the polemics between early Christians and Hellenists, with each faction pejoratively applying it to the opposing group.
The English term atheist (derived from the French athée), signifying "one who denies the existence of God or gods," appeared earlier than atheism, with its initial recorded uses dating to 1566 and 1571. By 1577, Atheist was also employed to denote practical godlessness. The word atheism itself originated from the French athéisme, entering the English lexicon around 1587.
In late 18th-century Europe, Atheism first emerged as a descriptor for a self-professed belief, specifically indicating a rejection of the monotheistic Abrahamic God. During the 20th century, globalization facilitated the term's broader application to encompass disbelief in all deities, although in Western societies, it is still frequently characterized as "disbelief in God."
Arguments
Epistemological arguments
Skepticism, drawing from the philosophical tenets of David Hume, posits that absolute certainty regarding any proposition is unattainable, thereby precluding definitive knowledge of a deity's existence. Nevertheless, Hume maintained that such unobservable metaphysical constructs ought to be dismissed as "sophistry and illusion."
Michael Martin posits that atheism constitutes a justified and rational true belief. However, he refrains from providing extensive epistemological justification, citing the contentious nature of contemporary theories. Instead, Martin advocates for "mid-level principles of justification that align with established ordinary and scientific rational practices."
Additional arguments supporting atheism, categorized as either epistemological or ontological, contend that fundamental terms like "God" and assertions such as "God is all-powerful" are devoid of meaning or unintelligible. Theological noncognitivism maintains that the declaration "God exists" does not convey a proposition, but rather is nonsensical or cognitively vacuous. There is ongoing debate regarding whether individuals holding such views should be classified under atheism or agnosticism. Philosophers A. J. Ayer and Theodore M. Drange, however, reject both classifications, asserting that both atheists and agnostics accept "God exists" as a valid proposition; consequently, they assign noncognitivism to a distinct category.
Ontological Arguments
A majority of atheists tend to endorse ontological monism, which posits the existence of a singular fundamental substance. Philosophical materialism, a related perspective, asserts that matter constitutes the primary substance in the natural world, thereby precluding the possibility of a non-material divine entity. Physicalism further contends that only physical entities possess existence. Philosophical frameworks that diverge from materialism or physicalism encompass idealism, dualism, and various other forms of monism. Naturalism, another pertinent viewpoint, characterizes everything that exists as fundamentally natural, denying the presence of supernatural phenomena. From a naturalist standpoint, scientific inquiry can elucidate the world through physical laws and natural occurrences. Philosopher Graham Oppy cites a PhilPapers survey indicating that 56.5% of academic philosophers favor physicalism, while 49.8% lean towards naturalism.
Graham Oppy distinguishes between direct and indirect arguments for atheism. Direct arguments endeavor to demonstrate the inherent shortcomings of theism, whereas indirect arguments are derived from direct arguments that support alternative positions incompatible with theism. For instance, Oppy illustrates that advocating for naturalism serves as an argument for atheism, given that naturalism and theism are mutually exclusive. Fiona Ellis discusses the "expansive naturalism" articulated by John McDowell, James Griffin, and David Wiggins, while simultaneously positing that certain aspects of human experience, such as the concept of value, resist explanation within such frameworks, thereby accommodating theism. Christopher C. Knight, conversely, proposes a theistic naturalism. Despite these alternative perspectives, Oppy maintains that robust naturalism generally supports atheism, although he identifies the most compelling direct arguments against theism as the evidential problem of evil and contentions regarding the contradictory attributes of a hypothetical divine being.
Logical Arguments
Certain atheists contend that various conceptualizations of deities, including the personal God of Christianity, are attributed logically inconsistent characteristics. These atheists advance deductive arguments refuting the existence of God, emphasizing the inherent incompatibility among traits such as perfection, creator status, immutability, omniscience, omnipresence, omnipotence, omnibenevolence, transcendence, personhood (as a personal being), non-physicality, justice, and mercy.
Theodicean atheists maintain that the empirical reality of the world is irreconcilable with the attributes commonly assigned to God and other deities by theologians. They assert that an omniscient, omnipotent, and omnibenevolent God cannot coexist with a world characterized by evil and suffering, and where divine love remains concealed from numerous individuals.
Epicurus is widely recognized for initially articulating the problem of evil. David Hume, in his Dialogues concerning Natural Religion (1779), referenced Epicurus when formulating this argument as a sequence of interrogatives: "Is God willing to prevent evil, but not able? Then he is impotent. Is he able, but not willing? Then he is malevolent. Is he both able and willing? Then whence cometh evil? Is he neither able nor willing? Then why call him God?" Analogous arguments have also been presented within Buddhist philosophy, with Vasubandhu (4th/5th century) notably detailing numerous Buddhist critiques against the concept of God.
Secular Perspectives on Religion
Philosopher Ludwig Feuerbach and psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud posited that the concept of God and other religious tenets are human constructs, designed to satisfy various psychological and emotional desires or requirements. Building upon Feuerbach's insights, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels contended that belief in God and religion serves as a social mechanism, exploited by those in authority to subjugate the proletariat. Mikhail Bakunin further asserted that "the idea of God implies the abdication of human reason and justice; it is the most decisive negation of human liberty, and necessarily ends in the enslavement of mankind, in theory, and practice." He famously inverted Voltaire's aphorism—that if God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him—by declaring, "if God really existed, it would be necessary to abolish him."
Atheism and Ethics
Secular Ethics
Sociologist Phil Zuckerman's analysis of prior social science research on secularity and non-belief indicated a positive correlation between societal well-being and irreligion. He observed significantly lower concentrations of atheism and secularity in less affluent, developing nations (notably in Africa and South America) compared to wealthier, industrialized democracies. Regarding atheism specifically within the United States, his findings suggested that "atheists and secular people" exhibit lower levels of nationalism, prejudice, antisemitism, racism, dogmatism, ethnocentrism, closed-mindedness, and authoritarianism when contrasted with religious individuals. Furthermore, states in the U.S. with the highest proportions of atheists reported lower-than-average murder rates, whereas the most religious states showed higher-than-average murder rates.
Joseph Baker and Buster Smith contend that a prevalent theme within atheism is the perception among most adherents that "atheism is typically construed as more moral than religion." Conversely, a frequent criticism leveled against atheism posits that denying a divine existence either results in moral relativism, thereby lacking a moral or ethical framework, or renders life devoid of meaning and inherently miserable. Blaise Pascal articulated this perspective in his Pensées. Another common assertion suggests that atheists readily embrace belief in God during crises, undergo deathbed conversions, or that "there are no atheists in foxholes." However, numerous counter-examples exist, including instances of literal "atheists in foxholes." Significantly, normative ethical systems exist that do not necessitate the derivation of principles and rules from a deity.
Plato's Euthyphro dilemma suggests that the divine role in establishing right and wrong is either superfluous or arbitrary. The contention that morality must originate from God and cannot subsist without a sagacious creator has remained a consistent element in political, if less so philosophical, discourse. Moral imperatives, such as "murder is wrong," are often conceptualized as divine laws, necessitating a divine legislator and arbiter. Nevertheless, many atheists assert that a legalistic approach to morality constitutes a false analogy, arguing that morality is not contingent on a lawmaker in the same manner as legal statutes.
Philosophers Susan Neiman and Julian Baggini, among others, contend that ethical conduct motivated solely by a divine mandate does not represent genuine ethical behavior but rather constitutes mere blind obedience. Baggini further posits that atheism offers a superior foundation for ethics, asserting the necessity of a moral framework independent of religious imperatives to critically assess the morality of those imperatives themselves. This enables individuals to discern, for instance, that "thou shalt steal" is immoral even if prescribed by one's religion. Consequently, he argues that atheists possess an advantage in being more predisposed to undertake such critical evaluations.
Criticism of Religion
A number of prominent atheists, including contemporary figures such as Christopher Hitchens, Daniel Dennett, Sam Harris, and Richard Dawkins, alongside historical thinkers like Bertrand Russell, Robert G. Ingersoll, Voltaire, and novelist José Saramago, have voiced criticisms of religions. Their critiques frequently highlight the detrimental aspects inherent in various religious practices and doctrines.
The 19th-century German political theorist and sociologist Karl Marx famously characterized religion as "the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people." He further elaborated, stating that "The abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real happiness. To call on them to give up their illusions about their condition is to call on them to give up a condition that requires illusions. The criticism of religion is, therefore, in embryo, the criticism of that vale of tears of which religion is the halo."
Sam Harris critiques Western religious traditions for their dependence on divine authority, asserting that this reliance fosters authoritarianism and dogmatism. Furthermore, numerous studies have identified a correlation between religious fundamentalism, extrinsic religiosity (where faith is maintained for ulterior motives), and tendencies toward authoritarianism, dogmatism, and prejudice.
These critiques, coupled with historical events frequently cited as evidence of religion's perils—including the Crusades, inquisitions, witch trials, and terrorist attacks—are often presented to counter assertions regarding the beneficial impacts of religious belief. Conversely, proponents of religion contend that certain atheist-espousing regimes, such as the Soviet Union, have also perpetrated mass atrocities. In rebuttal, prominent atheists like Sam Harris and Richard Dawkins have argued that the atrocities committed by figures such as Stalin were driven by dogmatic ideology rather than atheism itself, emphasizing that while Stalin and Mao were indeed atheists, their actions were not undertaken in atheism's name.
Atheism, Religions, and Spirituality
Individuals identifying as atheists are frequently presumed to be irreligious; however, certain factions within major religions do not affirm the existence of a personal, creator deity. Consequently, it is posited that atheism is not inherently incompatible with all religious and spiritual frameworks, including contemporary Neopagan movements. Recently, several religious denominations have attracted openly atheistic adherents, exemplified by atheistic or humanistic Judaism and Christian atheism. Furthermore, atheism is recognized as a legitimate philosophical stance within various branches of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism.
History
Early Indian Religions
Concepts now identified as atheistic are evidenced during the Vedic period and classical antiquity. Atheistic schools of thought are discernible within early Indian philosophy, persisting since the era of the historical Vedic religion. Notably, among the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, Samkhya, recognized as the oldest philosophical tradition, does not posit the existence of God, and the early Mimamsa school similarly repudiated the concept of a deity.
The Chārvāka (or Lokāyata) school, a profoundly materialistic and anti-theistic philosophical tradition that emerged in India around the 6th century BCE, is arguably the most overtly atheistic philosophical system in India, drawing parallels with the Greek Cyrenaic school. This particular branch of Indian philosophy is categorized as heterodox because of its repudiation of Vedic authority, consequently precluding its inclusion among the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy. Its existence is significant as an indicator of a materialistic intellectual current in ancient India.
In An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, Satischandra Chatterjee and Dhirendramohan Datta elucidate that the comprehension of Chārvāka philosophy remains fragmentary, primarily derived from critiques by other philosophical schools. They state: "Though materialism in some form or other, has always been present in India, and occasional references are found in the Vedas, the Buddhistic literature, the Epics, as well as in the later philosophical works we do not find any systematic work on materialism, nor any organized school of followers as the other philosophical schools possess. But almost every work of the other schools states, for refutation, the materialistic views. Our knowledge of Indian materialism is chiefly based on these." Other Indian philosophical systems commonly considered atheistic encompass Classical Samkhya and Purva Mimamsa. Furthermore, the repudiation of a personal creator, or "God," is also evident within Jainism and Buddhism in India.
Classical Antiquity
The origins of Western atheism can be traced to pre-Socratic Greek philosophy; however, atheism, as understood in its contemporary definition, was exceptionally uncommon in ancient Greece. Pre-Socratic Atomists, including Democritus, endeavored to elucidate the world through a purely materialistic framework, interpreting religious beliefs as human responses to natural phenomena, yet they did not overtly disavow the existence of deities.
Anaxagoras, whom Irenaeus designated as "the atheist," faced accusations of impiety and subsequent condemnation for asserting that "the sun is a type of incandescent stone," an assertion intended to refute the divine nature of celestial bodies. During the late fifth century BCE, the Greek lyric poet Diagoras of Melos received a death sentence in Athens, charged with being a "godless person" (ἄθεος) following his mockery of the Eleusinian Mysteries; he subsequently fled the city to evade execution. In the post-classical era, philosophers including Cicero and Sextus Empiricus characterized Diagoras as an "atheist" who unequivocally denied the existence of deities. However, contemporary scholarship, notably Marek Winiarczyk, has advanced the influential perspective that Diagoras did not align with the modern definition of an atheist. Conversely, Tim Whitmarsh has contested this interpretation, positing that Diagoras's rejection of the gods stemmed from the problem of evil, an argument referenced in Euripides' fragmented play Bellerophon. Furthermore, a fragment from a lost Attic drama featuring Sisyphus, attributed to both Critias and Euripides, suggests that a sagacious individual fabricated "the fear of the gods" to compel moral conduct among the populace.
Protagoras, though occasionally misconstrued as an atheist, primarily articulated agnostic perspectives, famously stating: "Concerning the gods I am unable to discover whether they exist or not, or what they are like in form; for there are many hindrances to knowledge, the obscurity of the subject and the brevity of human life." The Athenian populace linked Socrates (c. 470–399 BCE) with the prevailing pre-Socratic philosophical currents that favored naturalistic inquiry and dismissed divine explanations for phenomena. Aristophanes' comedic drama The Clouds, staged in 423 BCE, depicts Socrates instructing his pupils that the conventional Greek deities are nonexistent. Subsequently, Socrates was prosecuted and executed on charges of disbelieving in the state's gods and instead venerating foreign deities, though he vigorously refuted these accusations of atheism during his trial. Based on an examination of these fifth-century BCE philosophers, David Sedley has posited that none overtly advocated radical atheism; however, given the clear attestation of radical atheist concepts in Classical sources, Athens likely harbored an "atheist underground."
Religious skepticism persisted into the Hellenistic era, with Epicurus (c. 300 BCE) emerging as the preeminent Greek intellectual contributing to the evolution of atheistic thought during this epoch. Building upon the principles of Democritus and the Atomists, Epicurus advanced a materialistic philosophy asserting that the cosmos operated under the dictates of chance, precluding the necessity of divine intervention. While Epicurus affirmed the existence of deities, he contended that they remained indifferent to human concerns. The primary objective of the Epicureans was to achieve ataraxia, or "peace of mind," a state significantly fostered by demonstrating the irrationality of fearing divine retribution. Furthermore, Epicureans rejected the concept of an afterlife and the apprehension of post-mortem divine punishment.
Euhemerus (c. 300 BCE) disseminated his theory positing that deities were merely deified historical rulers and founders. Although not an atheist in the strict sense, Euhemerus subsequently drew criticism from Plutarch for having "spread atheism over the whole inhabited earth by obliterating the gods." During the third century BCE, the Hellenistic philosophers Theodorus Cyrenaicus and Strato of Lampsacus were also recognized for their purported denial of divine existence. The Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus (c. 200 CE) systematically collected numerous ancient arguments challenging the existence of gods, advocating for the suspension of judgment on such matters. His substantial body of extant writings exerted a profound and enduring impact on subsequent philosophical discourse.
The definition of "atheist" evolved throughout classical antiquity. Early Christians faced widespread condemnation as "atheists" due to their disbelief in the Graeco-Roman pantheon. Within the Roman Empire, Christians were executed for their refusal to acknowledge Roman deities and, specifically, the Imperial cult of ancient Rome. A significant conflict ensued between Christians and pagans, with both factions accusing the other of atheism for failing to adhere to what each considered the correct religious practice. Following Christianity's establishment as the state religion of Rome under Theodosius I in 381 CE, heresy became a prosecutable crime.
The Early Middle Ages to the Renaissance
The Islamic world underwent a Golden Age during the Early Middle Ages. This era, marked by significant advancements in science and philosophy across Arab and Persian territories, also fostered rationalist thinkers who expressed skepticism regarding revealed religion. Notable figures included Muhammad al Warraq (fl. 9th century), Ibn al-Rawandi (827–911), and Abu Bakr al-Razi (c. 865–925), alongside explicit atheists like al-Maʿarri (973–1058). Al-Maʿarri famously asserted that religion was a "fable invented by the ancients" and categorized humanity into "two sorts: those with brains, but no religion, and those with religion, but no brains." Despite their prolific output, much of these authors' original work is lost, primarily surviving through fragments and citations within later refutations by Muslim apologists.
During the Early and High Middle Ages in Europe, the articulation of atheistic perspectives was uncommon. Nevertheless, this period witnessed movements that promoted heterodox interpretations of the Christian deity, encompassing diverse understandings of God's nature, transcendence, and knowability. William of Ockham, through his nominalist approach, limited human knowledge to singular objects, thereby fostering anti-metaphysical inclinations and contending that the divine essence was beyond intuitive or rational human apprehension. Heretical groups, such as the Waldensians, also faced accusations of atheism. This emerging dichotomy between faith and reason significantly impacted subsequent radical and reformist theological thought.
The Renaissance significantly broadened the parameters of free thought and skeptical investigation. Figures like Leonardo da Vinci prioritized empirical experimentation as an explanatory method over reliance on religious authority. Among the era's critics of religion and the Church was Niccolò Machiavelli, who, despite never explicitly declaring atheism in his works, is frequently posited as an atheist. Other individuals alleged to have held critical views include Bonaventure des Périers, Michel de Montaigne, and François Rabelais.
The Early Modern Period
According to historian Geoffrey Blainey, the Reformation inadvertently facilitated the emergence of atheism by challenging the Catholic Church's authority, thereby "quietly inspir[ing] other thinkers to attack the authority of the new Protestant churches." Deism subsequently gained traction in France, Prussia, and England. In 1546, the French scholar Etienne Dolet was executed on charges of atheism. Blainey identifies the philosopher Baruch Spinoza as "probably the first well known 'semi-atheist' to announce himself in a Christian land in the modern era." Spinoza posited that the universe's operations could be elucidated through natural laws, publishing his Short Treatise on God in 1661.
During the 17th and 18th centuries, critiques of Christianity intensified, particularly in France and England. Certain Protestant intellectuals, including Thomas Hobbes, adopted a materialist philosophy and expressed skepticism regarding supernatural phenomena. By the close of the 17th century, deism was openly embraced by a growing number of intellectuals. The earliest documented explicit atheist was the German religious critic Matthias Knutzen, whose three works appeared in 1674. He was succeeded by two other overt atheist writers: the Polish ex-Jesuit philosopher Kazimierz Łyszczyński, who is widely considered the author of the world's first treatise on the non-existence of God, and the French priest Jean Meslier, active in the 1720s.
The 18th century witnessed the emergence of additional overt atheist thinkers, including Baron d'Holbach, Jacques-André Naigeon, and other French materialists. Baron d'Holbach, a notable figure of the French Enlightenment, gained recognition for his atheism and extensive critiques of religion, most notably The System of Nature (1770) and Christianity Unveiled.
Human unhappiness stems from an ignorance of Nature. Individuals' persistent adherence to unexamined beliefs acquired in childhood, which become deeply ingrained in their being, fosters prejudices that distort their intellect, impede its development, and enslave them to falsehoods, seemingly condemning them to perpetual error.
In Great Britain, William Hammon and physician Mathew Turner co-authored a pamphlet directly refuting Joseph Priestley's Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever. This publication marked the inaugural English-language defense of atheism, implicitly suggesting that the prevailing Christian sentiment rendered public advocacy for atheism an act likely to incur societal retribution.
While Voltaire is broadly acknowledged for his significant contributions to atheistic thought during the Revolution, he concurrently believed that the fear of God served to mitigate further societal unrest, famously stating, "If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him." Concurrently, David Hume formulated a skeptical epistemology rooted in empiricism, and Immanuel Kant's philosophy rigorously challenged the fundamental feasibility of metaphysical knowledge. Both philosophers critically dismantled the metaphysical foundations of natural theology and critiqued traditional arguments positing God's existence.
A primary objective of the French Revolution involved reorganizing and subordinating the clergy to state authority via the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Efforts to implement this measure precipitated anti-clerical violence and the expulsion of numerous clerics from France, a period that persisted until the Thermidorian Reaction. In 1793, the radical Jacobins assumed control, establishing deism as the basis for the new French state religion, the Cult of the Supreme Being.
During the latter half of the 19th century, atheism gained significant traction, influenced by rationalist and freethinking philosophers. Ludwig Feuerbach, a German philosopher, posited that God was a human construct and religious practices represented wish-fulfillment. His ideas impacted thinkers like Karl Marx and Friedrich Nietzsche, both of whom rejected the existence of deities and critically analyzed religion. In 1842, George Holyoake became the last individual incarcerated in Great Britain for his atheist convictions. Stephen Law suggests Holyoake might also have been the first person imprisoned on such a specific charge, further noting that Holyoake "first coined the term 'secularism'".
The Twentieth Century
Throughout the 20th century, atheism progressed across numerous societies. Atheistic perspectives gained acceptance within diverse, broader philosophical frameworks, including Marxism, logical positivism, existentialism, humanism, feminism, and the overarching scientific movement. Advocates of naturalism, such as Bertrand Russell and John Dewey, unequivocally dismissed theistic belief. Similarly, analytical philosophers like J.N. Findlay and J.J.C. Smart presented arguments refuting the existence of God.
State atheism materialized in Eastern Europe and Asia, notably within the Soviet Union under Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin, and in Communist China led by Mao Zedong. Soviet atheist and anti-religious policies encompassed extensive legislative measures, the prohibition of religious education in schools, and the establishment of the League of Militant Atheists. During the Second World War, Stalin moderated his stance against the Orthodox Church to enhance public support for his administration.
In 1966, Time magazine posed the question, "Is God Dead?" This inquiry was prompted by the Death of God theological movement and referenced an estimate indicating that nearly half of the global population resided under anti-religious governance, with millions more across Africa, Asia, and South America apparently unfamiliar with Christian theological perspectives.
Prominent figures, such as Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, a notable atheist leader in India, actively opposed Hinduism and Brahmins, citing their perceived discrimination and societal divisions based on caste and religion. In the United States, atheist Vashti McCollum served as the plaintiff in a pivotal 1948 Supreme Court case that resulted in the prohibition of religious instruction in U.S. public schools. Madalyn Murray O'Hair, recognized as one of the most influential American atheists, initiated the 1963 Supreme Court case Murray v. Curlett, which successfully banned mandatory prayer in public educational institutions. The Freedom From Religion Foundation was co-founded in the United States in 1976 by Anne Nicol Gaylor and her daughter, Annie Laurie Gaylor, advocating for the separation of church and state.
The Twenty-First Century
"New Atheism" designates a movement among certain early 21st-century atheist authors who advocate that "religion should not be tolerated but should be countered, criticized, and exposed by rational argument wherever its influence arises." This movement is commonly associated with figures such as Sam Harris, Daniel Dennett, Richard Dawkins, Christopher Hitchens, and Victor J. Stenger. Proponents of "New Atheism" have cited the religiously motivated terrorist attacks of September 11th and the partially successful attempts to integrate creationist concepts into the American science curriculum, supported by the religious right, as evidence necessitating a societal shift toward greater secularism.
Melbourne hosted the inaugural Global Atheist Convention in 2010, promoted as the largest event of its kind worldwide, and sponsored by the Atheist Foundation of Australia and Atheist Alliance International. The convention took place at the Melbourne Convention & Exhibition Centre from March 12 to 14 of that year, attracting over 2,000 delegates, with all available tickets selling out more than five weeks prior to the event. A second conference was subsequently held, also in Melbourne, from April 13 to 15, 2012. However, a third convention, initially planned for February 2018, was canceled, reportedly due to insufficient interest.
Demographics
Quantifying the global atheist population presents inherent difficulties. Respondents to surveys on religious belief may interpret "atheism" differently or draw distinct boundaries between atheism, non-religious convictions, and non-theistic religious or spiritual perspectives. A 2010 survey published in Encyclopædia Britannica indicated that the non-religious constituted approximately 9.6% of the world's population, with atheists accounting for about 2.0%. This figure did not encompass adherents of atheistic religions, such as certain Buddhist traditions. The average annual change for atheism between 2000 and 2010 was a decrease of 0.17%. Scholars have suggested that global atheism may be declining as a percentage of the world's population, primarily because countries with lower religiosity tend to exhibit the lowest birth rates globally, while religious countries generally have higher birth rates.
According to global Win-Gallup International studies, the proportion of respondents identifying as "convinced atheists" was 13% in 2012, 11% in 2015, and 9% in 2017. As of 2012, the top ten surveyed countries with the highest percentages of self-identified "convinced atheists" included China (47%), Japan (31%), the Czech Republic (30%), France (29%), South Korea (15%), Germany (15%), the Netherlands (14%), Austria (10%), Iceland (10%), Australia (10%), and Ireland (10%). A separate 2012 study by the NORC found that East Germany had the highest percentage of atheists, with the Czech Republic ranking second. The prevalence of atheists within a country demonstrates a strong correlation with the level of individual and societal security, although exceptions exist.
Europe
The 2010 Eurobarometer Poll revealed that the percentage of respondents who agreed with the statement "you don't believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force" varied significantly across European nations. High percentages were observed in France (40%), the Czech Republic (37%), Sweden (34%), the Netherlands (30%), and Estonia (29%). Medium-high percentages were recorded in Germany (27%), Belgium (27%), and the UK (25%). Conversely, very low percentages were noted in Poland (5%), Greece (4%), Cyprus (3%), Malta (2%), and Romania (1%), with the European Union average standing at 20%. Furthermore, a 2012 Eurobarometer poll on discrimination within the European Union indicated that 16% of participants identified as non-believers or agnostics, while 7% self-identified as atheists.
A 2012 survey conducted by the Pew Research Center indicated that approximately 18% of Europeans identify as religiously unaffiliated, a category encompassing agnostics and atheists. This same survey revealed that the religiously unaffiliated constitute a majority of the population in only two European nations: the Czech Republic (75%) and Estonia (60%).
Asia
In Asia, four territories exhibit a majority population of religiously unaffiliated individuals: North Korea (71%), Japan (57%), Hong Kong (56%), and China (52%).
Australasia
The 2021 Australian Census reported that 38% of Australians identified as having "no religion," a classification that includes atheists. Similarly, a 2018 census in New Zealand found that 48.2% of its population reported no religious affiliation, an increase from 30% in 1991.
United States
According to the World Values Survey, 4.4% of Americans self-identified as atheists in 2014, although 11.1% of respondents in the same survey denied belief in God. A 2014 report by the Pew Research Center indicated that 3.1% of the U.S. adult population identified as atheist, an increase from 1.6% in 2007, and atheists comprised 13.6% of the religiously unaffiliated demographic. Conversely, the 2015 General Sociological Survey suggested that the proportion of atheists and agnostics in the U.S. has remained relatively stable over 23 years, with 2% identifying as atheist and 4% as agnostic in 1991, compared to 3% and 5% respectively in 2014.
The American Family Survey in 2017 determined that 34% of the population was religiously unaffiliated, comprising 23% identifying as "nothing in particular," 6% as agnostic, and 5% as atheist. In 2014, the Pew Research Center reported that 22.8% of the American populace did not identify with a religion, including 3.1% atheists and 4% agnostics. A PRRI survey found 24% of the population to be unaffiliated, with atheists and agnostics collectively representing approximately a quarter of this group. More recently, a 2023 Pew Research Center study indicated that 28% of Americans are religiously unaffiliated.
Arab world
In recent years, atheism has gained significant visibility within the Arab world. In major urban centers like Cairo, atheists have organized through cafés and social media, despite facing consistent suppression from authoritarian regimes. A 2012 Gallup International poll revealed that 5% of Saudis considered themselves "convinced atheists." However, a study indicated that very few young people in the Arab world have atheists within their social circles: less than 1% in Morocco, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, or Jordan, and only 3% to 7% in the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Kuwait, and Palestine. When queried about observing or hearing "traces of atheism" in their local communities, only 3% to 8% responded affirmatively across most surveyed countries, with the United Arab Emirates being a notable exception at 51%.
Attitudes toward atheism
Globally, atheists are generally perceived unfavorably, with non-atheists often implicitly associating them with immoral behaviors. A 2016 publication by the Pew Research Center highlighted that 15% of French individuals, 45% of Americans, and 99% of Indonesians explicitly believe that religious faith is a prerequisite for morality. Furthermore, Pew noted that in a U.S. poll, atheists and Muslims received the lowest ratings among major religious demographics on a "feeling thermometer." A study involving religious college students also suggested that considering their own mortality increased their likelihood of perceiving and interacting negatively with atheists, implying that such attitudes might stem from death anxiety.
Humanists International publishes the annual Freedom of Thought Report, which assesses legal and social restrictions impacting non-religious individuals worldwide and categorizes countries based on various thematic criteria.
Wealth, education, and reasoning style
Research indicates positive correlations between atheism and higher levels of education, wealth, and IQ. Data from the 2024 Pew Research Center shows that atheists in the United States are disproportionately white (77% compared to 62% of the general U.S. population). A 2008 study identified a negative relationship between intelligence and religious belief across Europe and the United States. Furthermore, an analysis of 137 countries revealed a 0.60 correlation between national IQ and a lack of belief in God. Evolutionary psychologist Nigel Barber suggests that atheism flourishes in economically stable regions, particularly European social democracies, where comprehensive social safety nets and superior healthcare reduce future uncertainty, thereby enhancing quality of life and life expectancy. Conversely, underdeveloped nations exhibit significantly lower rates of atheism.
Although statistically significant, the correlation between atheism and IQ is modest, and its underlying mechanisms remain largely unclear. One proposed hypothesis suggests that the inverse relationship between IQ and religiosity is mediated by individual variations in nonconformity; in numerous societies, religious adherence represents a conformist decision, and evidence indicates that individuals with higher intelligence tend to be less conformist. An alternative theory posits that individuals with elevated IQs are more inclined towards analytical reasoning, and that a rejection of religious belief stems from applying advanced analytical thought to evaluate religious assertions.
A 2017 study demonstrated that atheists possess superior reasoning capacities compared to religious individuals, a distinction that appeared independent of sociodemographic variables like age, education, and country of origin. Research from 2015 indicated that atheists achieve higher scores on cognitive reflection tests than theists. The authors of this study suggested that "The fact that atheists score higher agrees with the literature showing that belief is an automatic manifestation of the mind and its default mode. Disbelieving seems to require deliberative cognitive ability." A comprehensive 2016 study, which included four new investigations and a meta-analysis of prior research, reported that self-identified atheists scored 18.7% higher than theists on cognitive reflection tests, confirming a negative correlation between religiosity and analytical thinking. While acknowledging recent arguments that "it has been argued that analytic thinkers are not actually less religious; rather, the putative association may be a result of religiosity typically being measured after analytic thinking (an order effect)," the authors concluded: "Our results indicate that the association between analytical thinking and religious disbelief is not caused by a simple order effect. There is good evidence that atheists and agnostics are more reflective than religious believers." This study characterized reflectivity as personal judgment extending beyond intuition, encompassing analytical and scientific reasoning, and exhibiting reduced susceptibility to absurd or illogical propositions. This "analytic atheist" phenomenon has also been observed among academic philosophers, even after controlling for numerous potential confounding factors, including educational attainment.
Not all studies consistently identify this correlation between atheism and analytical thinking across every country examined, implying that the relationship might be culturally dependent. Furthermore, evidence suggests that gender could influence the "analytic atheist effect." Given that men are more frequently found to endorse atheism and often exhibit marginally superior performance on analytical thinking assessments (when variables like math anxiety are not controlled), the observed correlation between atheism and analytical reasoning might be partially attributable to factors explaining gender disparities in analytical thinking.
Antireligion – Opposition to religious belief or practice.
- Antireligion – Opposition to religion
- Apatheism – Indifference regarding the existence or non-existence of a deity.
- Compilations of notable atheists.
- Overview of atheism.
Notes
Sources
- Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "Atheism and Agnosticism." In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN 1095-5054. OCLC 429049174.
- Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "Atheism and Agnosticism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN 1095-5054. OCLC 429049174.Fieser, James; Dowden, Bradley (editors). "Atheism." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN 2161-0002; OCLC 37741658.