Islamic philosophy

Islamic philosophy is defined as a philosophical tradition originating within the Islamic cultural context. Within the Islamic world, two distinct terms are commonly rendered as "philosophy": falsafa, literally meaning lit.'philosophy', which encompasses philosophy alongside logic, mathematics, and physics; and kalam, literally meaning lit.'speech', which denotes a rationalist approach to Scholastic Islamic theology, including schools such as Ash'arism, Maturidism, and Mu'tazilism.

The genesis of early Islamic philosophy is attributed to al-Kindi during the 2nd century of the Islamic calendar (early 9th century CE), with its decline often associated with Ibn Rushd (Averroes) in the 6th century AH (late 12th century CE). This period largely corresponds with the era recognized as the Islamic Golden Age. Ibn Rushd's demise effectively signaled the conclusion of a particular branch of Islamic philosophy, commonly referred to as the Islamic peripatetic school, leading to a substantial reduction in philosophical endeavors across the western Islamic territories, including al-Andalus and the Maghreb.

Conversely, Islamic philosophy maintained its vitality for an extended duration in the eastern regions of the Islamic world, notably within Safavid Iran, the Ottoman Empire, and the Mughal Empire. In these areas, various philosophical schools, including Avicennism, Averroism, Illuminationism, mystical philosophy, transcendent theosophy, and the school of Isfahan, continued to thrive. Ibn Khaldun's work, *Muqaddimah*, notably advanced the philosophy of history. A resurgence of interest in Islamic philosophy occurred during the Nahda ("Awakening") movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and this scholarly engagement persists to the present.

Islamic philosophy exerted a profound influence on Christian Europe, as the translation of Arabic philosophical texts into Latin "led to the transformation of almost all philosophical disciplines in the medieval Latin world." The impact of Muslim philosophers was particularly significant in the fields of natural philosophy, psychology, and metaphysics.

Hans Daiber's comprehensive work, Bibliography of Islamic Philosophy, enumerates approximately 9,525 scholarly contributions (books and articles) pertaining to Islamic philosophy published up to 1998. This bibliography encompasses both primary source materials and secondary literature across Western and non-Western languages. A subsequent Supplement, released in 2007, augmented the original compilation with over 3,000 additional books and articles.

Introduction

Islamic philosophy is defined as philosophical discourse originating within an Islamic societal context. Given that this body of work does not exclusively address religious themes and was not solely authored by Muslims, numerous scholars advocate for the alternative designation "Arabic philosophy."

The term "Islamic philosophy" is a broad descriptor amenable to various interpretations and applications. In its most expansive definition, it signifies the comprehensive worldview of Islam, extrapolated from sacred texts pertaining to cosmic creation and divine volition. Alternatively, it can denote any intellectual tradition that prospered within the Islamic empire or under the aegis of Arab-Islamic culture and civilization. Most restrictively, it serves as a direct translation of Falsafa, specifically referring to philosophical schools that predominantly exhibit the influence of Greek philosophical systems, such as Neoplatonism and Aristotelianism.

Certain Islamic intellectual traditions contest the utility or validity of philosophical inquiry, positing that human knowledge and experience are inherently limited and thus incapable of reliably attaining truth. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that while "reason" ('aql) is occasionally acknowledged as a source of Islamic law, its conceptualization in this context is asserted to diverge significantly from the philosophical understanding of "reason."

The historiography of Islamic philosophy is characterized by ongoing debates regarding its appropriate interpretation. Central to these discussions are questions concerning the relative significance of Eastern intellectuals like Ibn Sina (Avicenna) versus Western thinkers such as Ibn Rushd, and whether Islamic philosophical texts should be understood literally or through an esoteric lens. Proponents of the esoteric interpretation, including Leo Strauss, contend that Islamic philosophers deliberately obscured their genuine meanings to evade religious persecution; however, scholars like Oliver Leaman dispute this assertion.

Formative influences

The foundational influences on classical or early Islamic philosophy include the Islamic religion itself, particularly concepts derived and interpreted from the Quran, alongside Greek philosophy, which early Muslims assimilated through conquests, and pre-Islamic Indian and Persian philosophical traditions. A significant focus of early philosophical discourse involved efforts to reconcile religious tenets with rational inquiry, primarily represented by Greek philosophical thought.

Early Islamic Philosophy

Within early Islamic thought, encompassing the philosophical developments of the "Islamic Golden Age" (traditionally spanning the 8th to 12th centuries), two primary intellectual currents emerged. The first, Kalam, primarily addressed Islamic theological inquiries, while the second, Falsafa, was rooted in interpretations of Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. Subsequent philosopher-theologians, including Ibn Sina (Avicenna), who established Avicennism, Ibn Rushd (Averroes), founder of Averroism, and figures such as Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) and Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, endeavored to synthesize these two distinct traditions.

Kalam

ʿIlm al-Kalām (Arabic: علم الكلام) denotes an Islamic theological discipline focused on establishing doctrinal principles through dialectical argumentation. The Arabic term literally translates to "speech".

An early significant debate occurred between proponents of Qadar (قدر, meaning "Fate"), who advocated for free will, and the Jabarites (جبر, meaning "force" or "constraint"), who espoused fatalism.

During the 2nd century of the Hijra, a novel intellectual movement emerged within the theological school of Basra, Iraq. Wasil ibn Ata, a student of Hasan of Basra, departed from his teacher's circle due to a doctrinal disagreement concerning whether a Muslim who commits a grave sin forfeits their faith. He subsequently systematized the more radical viewpoints of earlier factions, notably the Qadarites and Jabarites. This nascent school became known as Mu'tazilite (derived from i'tazala, meaning "to separate oneself").

The Mu'tazilites adopted a rigorous rationalist approach to interpreting Islamic doctrine, representing one of the earliest endeavors to develop a rational theology within Islam. Nevertheless, their views faced strong criticism from other Islamic philosophers, including both Maturidis and Asharites. The prominent Asharite scholar Fakhr ad-Din ar-Razi notably authored Al-Mutakallimin fi 'Ilm al-Kalam as a refutation of Mu'tazilite positions.

Subsequently, the term Kalam evolved to signify "theology" more broadly, encompassing the duties of the heart, often contrasted with or considered alongside fiqh (jurisprudence), which pertains to the duties of the body.

Falsafa

Falsafa is a Greek loanword signifying "philosophy," with the Greek pronunciation philosophia transforming into falsafa. Beginning in the 9th century, under the patronage of Caliph al-Ma'mun and his successor, ancient Greek philosophy was disseminated among Arab scholars, leading to the emergence of skilled proponents of the Peripatetic School, including Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes. Concurrently, another intellectual current, exemplified by the Brethren of Purity, employed Aristotelian terminology to articulate a predominantly Neoplatonic and Neopythagorean cosmological perspective.

Within the Abbasid caliphate, numerous intellectuals and scientists, including both heterodox Muslims and non-Muslims, were instrumental in transmitting Greek, Hindu, and other pre-Islamic knowledge to the Christian West. Notably, three speculative thinkers—Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Al-Kindi—integrated Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with concepts derived from Islamic thought.

Ahmad Sirhindi contended that the Greek philosophical perspective on creation was irreconcilable with Islamic doctrines. Moreover, he critiqued the application of philosophical methodologies in the exegesis of the Quran.

End of the Classical Period

By the 12th century, Kalam, having faced opposition from both philosophical and orthodox factions, declined due to a scarcity of proponents. Concurrently, however, Falsafa became the subject of intense critical examination. The most impactful critique originated from Al-Ghazali, whose treatise Tahafut al-Falasifa (The Incoherence of the Philosophers) systematically challenged the core tenets of the Peripatetic School.

Averroes, a contemporary of Maimonides, emerged as one of the final Islamic Peripatetics, dedicated to defending the tenets of Falsafa against al-Ghazali's critiques. The philosophical frameworks proposed by Ibn Rushd largely align with those of Ibn Bajjah and Ibn Tufail, both of whom adhered to the doctrines of Avicenna and Al-Farabi. Consistent with other Islamic Peripatetics, Averroes endorsed the concepts of spherical intelligence and universal emanation. This latter hypothesis posits that motion propagates throughout the cosmos, reaching all parts of the universe up to the highest realm. These hypotheses, in the view of Arabic philosophers, resolved the dualistic implications inherent in Aristotle's theories of pure energy and eternal matter.

In contrast to Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and other Persian and Muslim philosophers who tended to address topics challenging traditional beliefs with brevity, Ibn Rushd meticulously explored these subjects in extensive detail. He asserted, "Matter is not only eternal, but form is inherently potential within matter; otherwise, it would constitute a creation ex nihilo" (Munk, "Mélanges," p. 444). Consequently, this theory posits that the world's existence is not merely a possibility, as Avicenna suggested, but an absolute necessity.

Logic

Logic held significant importance within early Islamic philosophy. Sharia, or Islamic law, emphasized the establishment of rigorous argumentative standards, which fostered a distinctive logical methodology within Kalam. However, this approach was subsequently superseded by concepts derived from Greek and Hellenistic philosophy, particularly with the emergence of Mu'tazili philosophers who highly esteemed Aristotle's Organon. The contributions of Hellenistic-influenced Islamic philosophers, alongside Averroes' commentaries on the Organon, were instrumental in the assimilation of Aristotelian logic into medieval Europe. Furthermore, the writings of al-Farabi, Avicenna, al-Ghazali, and other Muslim logicians, who frequently critiqued and refined Aristotelian logic while introducing their own logical systems, were pivotal in the subsequent evolution of European logic during the Renaissance.

As stated in the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy:

Islamic philosophers conceptualized logic as encompassing not only the examination of formal inference patterns and their validity but also components of the philosophy of language, epistemology, and metaphysics. Due to ongoing disagreements with Arabic grammarians, Islamic philosophers were particularly keen on defining the interrelationship between logic and language. They extensively debated the scope and objectives of logic concerning both reasoning and speech. Within formal logical analysis, they expanded upon the theories of terms, propositions, and syllogisms, as originally articulated in Aristotle's Categories, De interpretatione, and Prior Analytics. Following Aristotle's principles, they viewed the syllogism as the fundamental structure to which all rational argumentation could be reduced, thereby considering syllogistic theory as the central tenet of logic. Most prominent Islamic Aristotelians even regarded poetics as a form of syllogistic art.

Significant advancements by Muslim logicians included the formulation of "Avicennian logic," which served as an alternative to Aristotelian logic. Avicenna's logical system notably introduced the hypothetical syllogism, temporal modal logic, and inductive logic. Further key developments in early Islamic philosophy comprised the establishment of a rigorous citation methodology, known as isnad or "backing," and the creation of ijtihad, a method for refuting claims, which was broadly applied across various inquiries.

Logic in Islamic Law and Theology

Early forms of analogical, inductive, and categorical syllogistic reasoning emerged within Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), Sharia, and Kalam (Islamic theology) from the 7th century onwards, predating the Arabic translations of Aristotle's works. This development was facilitated by the process of Qiyas. During the subsequent Islamic Golden Age, significant scholarly discourse arose among Islamic philosophers, logicians, and theologians regarding the precise interpretation of Qiyas—specifically, whether it denoted analogical reasoning, inductive reasoning, or categorical syllogism. While some Islamic scholars contended that Qiyas primarily signified inductive reasoning, Ibn Hazm (994–1064) challenged this view. He asserted that Qiyas genuinely referred to categorical syllogistic reasoning and, metaphorically, to analogical reasoning. Conversely, al-Ghazali (1058–1111), a position echoed by Abu Muhammad Asem al-Maqdisi in contemporary times, maintained that Qiyas fundamentally represented analogical reasoning, with categorical syllogism being a metaphorical application. Nevertheless, other Islamic scholars of that era proposed that the term Qiyas encompassed both analogical reasoning and categorical syllogism in their literal senses.

Aristotelian Logic

The earliest original Arabic treatises on logic were authored by al-Kindi (Alkindus) (805–873), who compiled a comprehensive summary of logical thought preceding his era. Subsequently, al-Farabi (Alfarabi) (873–950) introduced the first logical works incorporating non-Aristotelian components. His contributions included discussions on future contingents, the enumeration and interrelation of categories, the nexus between logic and grammar, and alternative forms of inference. Furthermore, al-Farabi is recognized for classifying logic into two distinct domains: "idea" and "proof."

Averroes (1126–1198), renowned for his extensive commentaries on Aristotelian logic, represented the final prominent logician originating from al-Andalus.

Avicennian Logic

Avicenna (980–1037) formulated his distinct logical framework, termed "Avicennian logic," as a counterpoint to Aristotelian logic. By the 12th century, this Avicennian system had superseded Aristotelian logic, becoming the preeminent logical paradigm throughout the Islamic world.

Avicenna (980–1037) initiated the earliest critiques of Aristotelian logic, authoring original treatises instead of mere commentaries. He notably challenged the Baghdad logical school's adherence to Aristotelian principles. His research encompassed the theory of definition and classification, the quantification of predicates in categorical propositions, and the development of a novel theory of "temporal modal" syllogism. This syllogistic form incorporated temporal modifiers within its premises, such as "at all times," "at most times," and "at some time."

Although Avicenna (980–1037) frequently employed deductive reasoning in his philosophical works, his medical methodology diverged significantly. Ibn Sina made inventive contributions to the advancement of inductive logic, utilizing it to conceptualize the notion of a syndrome. Within his medical texts, Avicenna was the first to articulate the methods of agreement, difference, and concomitant variation—principles fundamental to both inductive logic and the scientific method.

Ibn Hazm (994–1064) authored the Scope of Logic, a work emphasizing the crucial role of sense perception as an epistemological source. Al-Ghazali (Algazel) (1058–1111) significantly impacted the application of logic within theology, notably by integrating Avicennian logic into Kalam.

Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (b. 1149) critiqued Aristotle's "first figure" and advanced a form of inductive logic, thereby anticipating the inductive system later developed by John Stuart Mill (1806–1873). Comprehensive refutations of Greek logic were also produced by the Illuminationist school, established by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi (1155–1191). Suhrawardi introduced the concept of "decisive necessity," a significant innovation in the history of logical philosophical inquiry, and advocated for inductive reasoning.

Metaphysics

Cosmological and Ontological Arguments

Avicenna's argument for divine existence, articulated within the Metaphysics section of his work, The Book of Healing, represented the pioneering ontological argument. This constituted the initial application of a priori proof methodology, relying solely on intuition and reason. Avicenna's proof of God's existence is distinctive for its dual classification as both a cosmological and an ontological argument. It is considered ontological "insofar as ‘necessary existence’ in intellect is the first basis for arguing for a Necessary Existent," and also "cosmological insofar as most of it is taken up with arguing that contingent existents cannot stand alone and must end up in a Necessary Existent."

Essence and Existence

Prominent theologians, particularly within the Muʿtazilite school, concurred with Aristotelian metaphysical principles, asserting that non-existence constitutes both a 'thing' (s̲h̲ayʾ) and an 'entity' (d̲h̲āt). Within Aristotelian philosophy, a crucial distinction is drawn between absolute non-existence (absolute nothingness) and relative non-existence. Relative non-existence, in this context, denotes either the absence of a specific quality or the inherent potentiality of an entity. Muʿtazilite scholars, including al-Fārābī and Ibn Sīnā, maintained that entities possessed a relative form of existence preceding their creation. They posited that God, possessing foreknowledge of creation, subsequently bestowed upon these entities the 'accident' of existence. In contrast, the Asharite school considered existence to be synonymous with essence.

Islamic philosophy, deeply intertwined with Islamic theology, delineates the distinction between essence and existence with greater precision than Aristotelian thought. While existence pertains to the contingent and accidental aspects of being, essence represents the enduring, fundamental nature of an entity, transcending its accidental attributes. This conceptual framework was initially articulated in Avicenna's metaphysical writings, a body of work itself shaped by the influence of al-Farabi.

Certain Orientalist scholars, particularly those influenced by Thomist thought, have contended that Avicenna was the first to conceptualize existence (wujud) as an accidental attribute pertaining to essence (mahiyya). Nevertheless, this ontological perspective does not represent the core of Avicenna's fundamental distinction between essence and existence. Consequently, it is inaccurate to assert that Avicenna was an essentialist per se, considering that existence (al-wujud), when understood through the lens of necessity, ontologically manifests as the 'Necessary-Existent-due-to-Itself' (wajib al-wujud bi-dhatihi). This entity is inherently beyond description or definition, notably lacking quiddity or essence (la mahiyya lahu). Therefore, Avicenna's ontological framework exhibits an 'existentialist' character when analyzing being–qua–existence through the concept of necessity (wujub), yet it adopts an essentialist stance when contemplating being–qua–existence in relation to 'contingency–qua–possibility' (imkan or mumkin al-wujud, signifying 'contingent being').

Some scholars contend that Avicenna foreshadowed the ideas of Frege and Bertrand Russell by asserting that "existence is an accident of accidents," and similarly anticipated Alexius Meinong's "view about nonexistent objects." Furthermore, he advanced foundational arguments for "a "necessary being" as cause of all other existents."

The philosophical concept of "essence preced[ing] existence" originates with Avicenna and his intellectual tradition, as well as with Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi and his Illuminationist philosophy. Conversely, the existentialist notion of "existence preced[ing] essence" was elaborated in the writings of Averroes and within Mulla Sadra's transcendent theosophy.

Resurrection

Ibn al-Nafis authored Theologus Autodidactus to defend "the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines concerning the missions of Prophets, religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transitoriness of the world." This treatise offers rational arguments supporting bodily resurrection and the immortality of the human soul, drawing evidence from both demonstrative reasoning and the hadith corpus. Subsequent Islamic scholars interpreted this work as a direct rebuttal to Avicenna's metaphysical arguments for spiritual resurrection (in contrast to bodily resurrection), a position previously critiqued by al-Ghazali.

Soul and Spirit

The Muslim physician-philosophers Avicenna and Ibn al-Nafis formulated distinct theories concerning the soul. Both scholars differentiated between the soul and the spirit, with Avicenna's doctrine on the soul's nature notably influencing Scholastic thought. Avicenna posited that the soul's immortality is an inherent consequence of its essence, rather than a teleological objective. Within his "Theory of the Ten Intellects," he conceptualized the human soul as the tenth and ultimate intellect.

Avicenna and Ibn al-Nafis, Islamic philosophers and physicians who adhered to Aristotelian principles, proposed a distinct theory of the soul, differentiating between the soul and the spirit [32]. Avicenna asserted that the soul constitutes a spiritual substance, distinct from the body, which it utilizes as an instrument. To demonstrate the soul's spiritual independence from the material body and to illustrate self-awareness, Avicenna introduced the renowned "insan-i tair" (flying person) thought experiment, which gained widespread recognition in the medieval West. This experiment posits an individual suspended in the air, devoid of all sensory input and material contact. Even in this state, the individual retains self-awareness, leading to the conclusion that the soul is an independent substance, not contingent upon physical matter. This concept is encapsulated by the idea, "I exist even though I am not in the dense-rough matter of the world." Avicenna's "proving by reflection" was later refined by René Descartes, who articulated it epistemologically: "I can isolate myself from all supposed things outside of me, but I can never (abstract) from my own consciousness." Consistent with his broader philosophy, Avicenna maintained that the soul's immortality is an intrinsic necessity and consequence of its nature, rather than a mere objective.

While Avicenna generally endorsed Aristotle's concept of the soul originating in the heart, Ibn al-Nafis explicitly rejected this notion. Instead, Ibn al-Nafis contended that the soul "is related to the entirety and not to one or a few organs." He further critiqued Aristotle's premise that each distinct soul necessitates a unique source, such as the heart. Ibn al-Nafis ultimately concluded that "the soul is related primarily neither to the spirit nor to any organ, but rather to the entire matter whose temperament is prepared to receive that soul," defining the soul as precisely "what a human indicates by saying ‘I’."

Thought Experiments

During his imprisonment in the castle of Fardajan near Hamadhan, Avicenna formulated his "Floating Man" thought experiment to illustrate human self-awareness and the soul's substantial nature. He invoked the concept of living human intelligence, specifically the active intellect, which he considered the hypostasis through which God conveys truth to the human mind and bestows order and intelligibility upon nature. The "Floating Man" experiment instructs readers to envision themselves suspended in the air, completely isolated from all sensations, including any physical contact with their own bodies. Avicenna contended that, even under these conditions, an individual would retain self-consciousness. Consequently, he concluded that the concept of the self is not logically contingent upon any physical entity, and that the soul should be regarded not in relative terms, but as a fundamental, inherent substance.

René Descartes subsequently refined and simplified this argument epistemologically, articulating it as: "I can abstract from the supposition of all external things, but not from the supposition of my own consciousness."

Time

While ancient Greek philosophers posited an infinite past for the universe without a beginning, early medieval philosophers and theologians developed the concept of a finite past with a distinct commencement. This perspective was influenced by the creationist doctrines shared across Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The Christian philosopher John Philoponus notably articulated a comprehensive argument refuting the ancient Greek notion of an infinite past. Subsequently, Muslim and Arab Jewish philosophers, including Al-Kindi, Saadia Gaon, and Al-Ghazali, advanced further arguments, primarily categorized into two broad assertions: the "impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite" and the "impossibility of completing an actual infinite by successive addition."

Truth

Within the domain of metaphysics, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) articulated truth as:

What corresponds in the mind to what is outside it.

Avicenna further expounded upon his definition of truth in his work, Metaphysics:

The truth of a thing is the property of the being of each thing which has been established in it.

In his Quodlibeta, Thomas Aquinas provided a commentary on Avicenna's definition of truth from his Metaphysics, elucidating it as follows:

The truth of each thing, as Avicenna says in his Metaphysica, is nothing else than the property of its being which has been established in it. So that is called true gold which has properly the being of gold and attains to the established determinations of the nature of gold. Now, each thing has properly being in some nature because it stands under the complete form proper to that nature, whereby being and species in that nature is.

Early Islamic political philosophy underscored an intrinsic connection between scientific inquiry and religious principles, advocating for the process of *ijtihad* in the pursuit of truth.

Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) posited that to ascertain the truth about nature, it is imperative to eliminate human opinion and potential error, thereby allowing the universe to reveal its own principles. In his Aporias against Ptolemy, Ibn al-Haytham offered additional reflections on the nature of truth:

Truth is sought for itself [but] the truths, [he warns] are immersed in uncertainties [and the scientific authorities (such as Ptolemy, whom he greatly respected) are] not immune from error...

Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency.

I constantly sought knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that for gaining access to the effulgence and closeness to God, there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge.

Free will and predestination

The dichotomy between free will and predestination constitutes one of the "most contentious topics in classical Islamic thought." In alignment with the Islamic doctrine of predestination, or divine preordainment (al-qadā wa'l-qadar), God possesses comprehensive knowledge and absolute control over all occurrences. This principle is articulated in Qur'anic verses, such as "Say: 'Nothing will happen to us except what Allah has decreed for us: He is our protector'..." For adherents of Islam, every event in the world, whether favorable or adverse, is preordained, and nothing can transpire without divine permission. According to Islamic tradition, all divine decrees are inscribed in al-Lawh al-Mahfūz, known as the "Preserved Tablet."

Natural philosophy

Atomism

Atomistic philosophies emerged quite early in Islamic thought, representing a synthesis of Greek and Indian intellectual traditions. Similar to their Greek and Indian counterparts, Islamic atomism was a contentious subject, carrying the potential for conflict with prevailing religious orthodoxy. Nevertheless, its inherent fertility and adaptability allowed it to flourish within certain schools of Islamic thought, much as it had in Greece and India.

The Ash'arite school of philosophy developed the most influential form of Islamic atomism, prominently articulated in the writings of the philosopher al-Ghazali (1058–1111). Within Ash'arite atomism, atoms are posited as the sole enduring material entities, while all other phenomena in the world are considered "accidental," signifying their transient existence for merely an instant. No accidental entity can serve as a cause for another, with the exception of perception, given its momentary duration. Contingent occurrences are not governed by inherent natural physical causes but rather arise as a direct consequence of God's continuous intervention, without which no event could transpire. This perspective establishes nature's absolute dependence on God, aligning with other Ash'arite Islamic doctrines concerning causation, or its perceived absence.

Conversely, other Islamic traditions repudiated Ash'arite atomism, instead elaborating upon numerous Greek philosophical texts, particularly those by Aristotle. A prominent philosophical school in Spain, featuring the renowned commentator Averroes (1126-1198 CE), explicitly disavowed al-Ghazali's ideas and engaged in a comprehensive analysis of Aristotelian thought. Averroes meticulously expounded upon the majority of Aristotle's works, and his commentaries significantly influenced the interpretation of Aristotle within subsequent Jewish and Christian scholastic traditions.

Cosmology

Several cosmological passages within the Qur'an have been interpreted by some contemporary scholars as prefiguring concepts such as the expansion of the universe and potentially even the Big Bang theory:

Do the disbelievers not realize that the heavens and earth were ˹once˺ one mass then We split them apart? And We created from water every living thing. Will they not then believe?

We built the universe with ˹great˺ might, and We are certainly expanding ˹it˺.

Unlike ancient Greek philosophers who posited an eternal universe without a temporal origin, medieval philosophers and theologians formulated the concept of a universe possessing a finite past and a distinct beginning. This perspective drew inspiration from the creation narratives common to the three Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The Christian philosopher John Philoponus advanced the initial argument challenging the ancient Greek proposition of an infinite past. His rationale gained widespread acceptance, notably influencing the Muslim philosopher Al-Kindi (Alkindus), the Jewish philosopher Saadia Gaon (Saadia ben Joseph), and the Muslim theologian Al-Ghazali (Algazel). These thinkers employed two primary logical arguments to refute an infinite past, the first being the "argument from the impossibility of the existence of an actual infinite," which asserts:

"An actual infinite cannot exist."

"An infinite temporal regress of events is an actual infinite."

".•. An infinite temporal regress of events cannot exist."

The second argument, termed the "argument from the impossibility of completing an actual infinite by successive addition," posits:

"An actual infinite cannot be completed by successive addition."

"The temporal series of past events has been completed by successive addition."

".•. The temporal series of past events cannot be an actual infinite."

Both of these arguments were subsequently adopted by Christian philosophers and theologians, with the second argument gaining particular prominence after its incorporation by Immanuel Kant into his thesis on the first antinomy concerning time.

During the 10th century, the Brethren of Purity published the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity, which includes a section on cosmology articulating a heliocentric perspective of the universe:

God has placed the Sun at the center of the Universe just as the capital of a country is placed in its middle and the ruler's palace at the center of the city.

The cosmological concepts advanced by scholars such as al-Farabi and Ibn Sina exhibit significant parallels with Neo-Platonistic emanation cosmology. These thinkers identified various Intellects, segmenting the cosmos into distinct spheres, which they likened to Islamic angels. Nevertheless, Islamic scholars consistently asserted that all celestial spheres collectively constitute a singular entity, propelled by God, a perspective contrasting with Aristotelian cosmology where God solely influences the outermost sphere. Ibn Sina, diverging from al-Farabi, posited that God is not an intrinsic component of the emanation scheme, but rather emanated entities in accordance with divine will. In his Theologia Aristotelis, he elucidates how, through God's manifestation, the intellects attain awareness of God and their designated role within the universe. Furthermore, Ibn Sina appears to differentiate between two categories of angels: one entirely independent of matter, and another existing as a superior form of matter. The latter are capable of conveying messages between the celestial spheres and the sublunary realm, often manifesting in visions. Consequently, higher-ranking angels reside in elevated spheres, while their subordinate counterparts appear in an intermediary domain. Ibn Sina's exposition may suggest an attempt to integrate revelation within the framework of the natural world. Similarly, Qazwini enumerated a lower class of angels, termed earthly angels, which he described as immanent forces of nature responsible for maintaining cosmic order and unfailingly executing their duties. Qazwini contended that the existence of these angels could be substantiated through rational inquiry and by observing their effects on their assigned objects.

Evolution

Struggle for Existence

The Mu'tazili scientist and philosopher al-Jahiz (c. 776–869) stands as the sole known medieval Arab philosopher to address subjects pertinent to natural selection. Al-Jahiz's propositions concerning the struggle for existence, detailed in his Book of Animals, have been summarized as follows:

Organisms engage in a struggle for survival, competing for resources, endeavoring to evade predation, and striving to reproduce. Environmental pressures induce organisms to acquire novel characteristics essential for survival, thereby facilitating their transformation into new species. Individuals that successfully survive and reproduce are able to transmit their advantageous traits to their progeny.

However, Frank Edgerton (2002) deems "unconvincing" the assertion by some authors that al-Jahiz was an early proponent of evolution, though he considers valid the more specific claim that Jahiz "recognized the effect of environmental factors on animal life." Rebecca Stott (2013) offers the following observation regarding al-Jahiz's contributions:

Jahiz's primary focus was not on argumentation or theoretical constructs, but rather on observation. He was not attempting to decipher the origins of the world or the emergence of species, as he believed God was the brilliant creator. Nevertheless, he comprehended what might be termed the survival of the fittest.

In Chapter 47 of India, titled "On Vasudeva and the Wars of the Bharata," Abu Rayhan Biruni endeavored to provide a naturalistic explanation for the necessity of the conflicts described in the Mahabharata. He elucidated this through natural processes incorporating biological concepts related to evolution, leading several scholars to draw comparisons between his ideas and Darwinism and natural selection. This comparison stems from Biruni's articulation of artificial selection and its subsequent application to natural phenomena:

The agriculturist meticulously selects his corn, cultivating only the required amount and eliminating the remainder. Similarly, the forester preserves branches deemed excellent while excising all others. Bees eliminate those of their kind that merely consume without contributing to the hive's labor. Nature operates in an analogous fashion; however, its actions are undiscriminating and consistently uniform. It permits the perishing of leaves and fruits, thereby preventing them from fulfilling their intended role in the natural economy. Nature removes them to create space for new growth.

During the 13th century, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi expounded on the evolutionary progression of elements into minerals, then plants, subsequently animals, and ultimately humans. Tusi further elaborated on the critical role of hereditary variability in the biological evolution of living organisms:

Organisms capable of acquiring new features more rapidly exhibit greater variability. Consequently, they gain advantages over other creatures. The physical forms undergo transformation as a result of both internal and external interactions.

Tusi's discourse addresses the adaptive capabilities of organisms within their respective environments.

Tusi observes that animals and birds are endowed with essential attributes for defense, protection, and sustenance, encompassing inherent strengths, courage, and specialized anatomical structures [organs]. He elaborates that certain organs function as effective weaponry, citing examples such as horns resembling spears, teeth and claws serving as knives and needles, and feet and hooves acting as cudgels. Furthermore, the thorns and needles found on some animals are likened to arrows. For species lacking other defensive mechanisms, such as gazelles and foxes, protection is achieved through evasion and strategic cunning. Additionally, some organisms, including bees, ants, and specific avian species, form communal structures to ensure collective defense and mutual assistance.

The concept of species transmutation.

Al-Dinawari (828–896), recognized as the progenitor of Arabic botany due to his seminal work, the Book of Plants, explored the evolutionary trajectory of plants from their inception to senescence, detailing the various stages of growth, flowering, and fruit production.

Evolutionary theories were advanced in Ibn Miskawayh's al-Fawz al-Asghar and the Brethren of Purity's Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (also known as The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa). These theories are posited to have potentially influenced Charles Darwin and the genesis of Darwinism, though this assertion has previously faced criticism for being overly enthusiastic.

These texts posit that God initially created matter, imbuing it with developmental energy. Matter subsequently transformed into vapor, which eventually condensed into water. The subsequent developmental phase involved mineral life, with various lithic forms emerging over time. The apex of this mineral evolution is identified as mirjan (coral), described as a stone possessing arboreal branches. Following mineral life, vegetation evolved, culminating in the date-palm, a plant exhibiting characteristics akin to animals, such as distinct male and female genders. Notably, the date-palm can survive the removal of its branches but perishes if its crown is severed, thus being considered the most advanced plant and analogous to the most rudimentary animals. From this point, the lowest forms of animal life emerged, evolving into apes. The authors explicitly clarify that this evolutionary sequence is attributed to Ibn Maskawayh and is documented in the Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa, distinguishing it from Darwinian theory. These Muslim scholars further propose that apes evolved into a primitive form of barbarian man, who then progressed to become a superior human being. This human trajectory continues, leading to the attainment of sainthood, prophethood, and ultimately, an angelic state. The ultimate entity, transcending angels, is identified as God, from whom all existence originates and to whom all returns.

English renditions of the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity became accessible starting in 1812. Concurrently, Arabic manuscripts of al-Fawz al-Asghar and The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa were housed at the University of Cambridge by the 19th century. It is posited that these scholarly works potentially influenced 19th-century evolutionists, including Charles Darwin.

During the 14th century, Ibn Khaldun expanded upon the evolutionary concepts articulated in the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity. His 1377 treatise, the Muqaddimah, contains passages that elucidate these evolutionary perspectives:

It was elucidated that the entirety of existence, encompassing both its simple and composite realms, is structured in a natural hierarchy of ascent and descent, thereby forming an unbroken continuum. The fundamental essences at the culmination of each distinct stage within these realms are inherently predisposed to transmute into the adjacent essence, whether higher or lower. This principle applies to the basic material elements; it is evident in the transition from palms and vines, representing the final stage of plant life, to snails and shellfish, which constitute the most rudimentary animal forms. Similarly, this preparedness for transformation is observed in monkeys, beings characterized by their sagacity and perceptive faculties, in their relationship to humans, who possess the capacity for cogitation and introspection. The inherent readiness for transformation present at each juncture across these realms signifies their intrinsic interconnectedness.

Plants are described as lacking the sophistication and potency inherent in animals, a distinction that led sages to seldom focus their studies upon them. Animals represent the ultimate and conclusive stage within a sequence of three transmutations. Specifically, minerals transition into plants, and plants subsequently evolve into animals; however, animals are incapable of further transformation into a more refined state.

Many other Islamic scholars and scientists, among whom were the polymaths Ibn al-Haytham and Al-Khazini, engaged with and advanced these concepts. Subsequently, these treatises were translated into Latin, emerging in the Western world post-Renaissance, potentially impacting Western philosophical and scientific thought.

The Phenomenology of Vision

The polymath Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) is recognized as a foundational figure in phenomenology. He delineated a connection between the tangible, observable world and the realms of intuition, psychology, and cognitive processes. His conceptualizations of knowledge and perception, which integrated scientific and religious perspectives, culminated in an existential philosophy grounded in the direct observation of reality from the subjective viewpoint of the observer. A significant portion of his phenomenological insights remained largely unexplored until the twentieth century.

The Philosophy of Mind

Within medieval Islamic psychological discourse, the philosophy of mind constituted a significant area of inquiry. This field encompassed the examination of the nafs (Arabic for 'self' or 'psyche') within the Islamic intellectual tradition. Its development was prominent during the Islamic Golden Age (8th–15th centuries) and has continued into modern eras (20th–21st centuries), maintaining connections with psychology, psychiatry, and the neurosciences.

Concepts of Place and Space

The Arab polymath al-Hasan Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen; c. 1041 CE) offered a comprehensive mathematical critique and refutation of Aristotle's concept of place (topos). This was articulated in his work, Risala/Qawl fi’l-makan, translated as Treatise/Discourse on Place.

In Physics (Book IV, Delta), Aristotle posited that the place of an object is defined by the two-dimensional boundary of the stationary containing body that is in direct contact with the contained object. Ibn al-Haytham challenged this definition, asserting instead that place (al-makan) constitutes the imagined, three-dimensional void (al-khala' al-mutakhayyal) situated between the internal surfaces of the containing entity. His work demonstrated a conceptual similarity between place and space, anticipating Descartes's formulation of place as space qua Extensio and even Leibniz's analysis situs. Ibn al-Haytham's mathematical approach to place was underpinned by various geometric proofs, notably his investigation into spheres and other solids. This research revealed that the sphere (al-kura) possesses the greatest volumetric magnitude among geometric solids with equivalent surface areas. For example, a sphere with a surface area identical to that of a cylinder would exhibit a greater volumetric magnitude than the cylinder. Consequently, the sphere would occupy a larger 'place' than the cylinder, a conclusion that contradicts Aristotle's definition of place, which would imply that both the sphere and the cylinder occupy places of equal magnitude. Thus, Ibn al-Haytham repudiated Aristotle's philosophical understanding of place based on mathematical principles. Subsequently, in the 13th century, the philosopher 'Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi attempted to uphold the Aristotelian notion of place in a treatise titled Fi al-Radd ‘ala Ibn al-Haytham fi al-makan (translated as A Refutation of Ibn al-Haytham's Place). While his philosophical endeavor was commendable, it proved unpersuasive from scientific and mathematical perspectives.

Ibn al-Haytham further explored the perception of space and its epistemological ramifications in his seminal work, Book of Optics (1021 CE). His empirical validation of the intromission theory of vision fundamentally altered the comprehension of visual space perception, diverging from the earlier emission theory advocated by Euclid and Ptolemy. In "tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience, Alhacen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things."

The Philosophy of Education

During the medieval Islamic period, elementary education was provided in institutions known as maktab schools, which emerged by at least the 10th century. Similar to madrasahs, which served as centers for higher learning, maktabs were frequently affiliated with mosques. The 11th-century polymath Ibn Sina, recognized in the West as Avicenna, dedicated a chapter in one of his treatises to the maktab. Titled "The Role of the Teacher in the Training and Upbringing of Children," this chapter served as a pedagogical guide for educators within maktab institutions. He posited that children achieve superior learning outcomes in a classroom setting compared to individual instruction from private tutors. His rationale included the benefits of competition and peer emulation among students, alongside the efficacy of group discussions and debates. Ibn Sina further elaborated on the curriculum of a maktab school, detailing the educational programs for its two distinct stages.

Primary Education

Ibn Sina recommended that children commence their primary education at a maktab school from the age of six, continuing until they reached fourteen years old. During this period, the curriculum he proposed encompassed the Qur'an, Islamic metaphysics, language, literature, Islamic ethics, and various practical manual skills.

Secondary Education

Ibn Sina characterized the secondary education phase within maktab schooling as a period of specialization, during which students were expected to develop manual skills irrespective of their social standing. He advocated that adolescents over the age of fourteen should be granted the autonomy to select and specialize in subjects aligned with their interests, such as reading, practical skills, literature, rhetoric, medicine, geometry, commerce, craftsmanship, or any other field pertinent to their prospective careers. He further noted that this constituted a transitional phase, necessitating flexibility in graduation age to accommodate students' emotional maturity and chosen academic paths.

Philosophy of Science

Scientific Method

The groundbreaking formulation of the scientific method by the Arab Ash'ari polymath Ibn al-Haytham (also known as Alhacen) represented a significant advancement in the philosophy of science. Within his seminal work, the Book of Optics (circa 1025 CE), Ibn al-Haytham outlined a scientific methodology that closely parallels modern approaches, comprising the following sequential procedures:

1. Observation
2. Problem Statement
3. Hypothesis Formulation
4. Experimental Hypothesis Testing
5. Analysis of Experimental Results
6. Data Interpretation and Conclusion Formulation
7. Dissemination of Findings

In his work The Model of the Motions, Ibn al-Haytham presented an early conceptualization of Occam's razor. He applied this principle by utilizing only the most parsimonious hypotheses concerning the characteristics of astronomical motions, thereby endeavoring to remove cosmological assumptions from his planetary model that lacked empirical observability from Earth.

In Aporias against Ptolemy, Ibn al-Haytham reflected on the inherent challenges in acquiring scientific knowledge, stating:

Truth is sought for itself [but] the truths, [he warns] are immersed in uncertainties [and the scientific authorities (such as Ptolemy, whom he greatly respected) are] not immune from error...

He maintained that the critique of established theories—a central theme of this particular work—plays a crucial role in the advancement of scientific understanding:

Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency.

Ibn al-Haytham linked his experimental scientific methodology and scientific skepticism directly to his Islamic beliefs. He posited that human beings possess inherent imperfections, whereas only God embodies absolute perfection. Consequently, he argued that discerning natural truths necessitates the exclusion of human biases and fallacies, thereby enabling the universe to reveal its own principles. In his work, The Winding Motion, Ibn al-Haytham additionally asserted that faith ought to be reserved exclusively for the prophets of Islam, rather than extended to other authorities. He illustrated this point through a comparison between the Islamic prophetic tradition and the demonstrative sciences:

From the statements made by the noble Shaykh, it is clear that he believes in Ptolemy's words in everything he says, without relying on a demonstration or calling on a proof, but by pure imitation (taqlid); that is how experts in the prophetic tradition have faith in Prophets, may the blessing of God be upon them. But it is not the way that mathematicians have faith in specialists in the demonstrative sciences.

Ibn al-Haytham characterized his pursuit of truth and knowledge as a means to achieve greater proximity to God:

I constantly sought knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that for gaining access to the effulgence and closeness to God, there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge.

Concurrently, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, a contemporary of Ibn al-Haytham, similarly pioneered an early scientific methodology across virtually all domains of his extensive research. For instance, within his mineralogical treatise, Kitab al-Jamahir (Book of Precious Stones), he is recognized as "the most exact of experimental scientists." Furthermore, in the preface to his comprehensive study of India, he explicitly stated that "to execute our project, it has not been possible to follow the geometric method," subsequently developing comparative sociology as a distinct scientific approach within that discipline. His contributions also encompassed the integration of experimental methods into mechanics, the pioneering of intricate experiments concerning astronomical phenomena, and foundational work in experimental psychology.

In contrast to the scientific methodology of his contemporary Avicenna, which prioritized "general and universal questions" that subsequently guided experimental endeavors, al-Biruni formulated scientific approaches where "universals emerged from practical, experimental work" and "theories were formulated subsequent to discoveries." During their discourse on natural philosophy, al-Biruni established a seminal distinction between the roles of a scientist and a philosopher, designating Avicenna as a philosopher while identifying himself as a mathematical scientist.

Al-Biruni's scientific methodology exhibited numerous parallels with contemporary scientific practices, notably his strong emphasis on iterative experimentation. He meticulously addressed the conceptualization and mitigation of both systematic and random errors, including "errors caused by the use of small instruments and errors made by human observers." He posited that when instruments introduce random errors due to inherent imperfections or idiosyncratic characteristics, it becomes imperative to conduct multiple observations, analyze them qualitatively, and subsequently derive a "common-sense single value for the constant sought," which could be either an arithmetic mean or a "reliable estimate."

Experimental Medicine

Avicenna (Ibn Sina) is widely regarded as the progenitor of modern medicine, primarily due to his pioneering contributions to experimental medicine and clinical trials. These contributions include the experimental application and evaluation of pharmaceuticals, alongside a rigorous framework for practical experimentation aimed at identifying and validating the efficacy of medicinal compounds. These advancements were comprehensively documented in his 11th-century medical encyclopedia, The Canon of Medicine, which stands as the inaugural text to address experimental medicine. This seminal work delineated the subsequent rules and principles for assessing the efficacy of novel drugs or medications, which continue to underpin contemporary clinical trials:

1. "The drug must be free from any extraneous accidental quality."
2. "It must be used on a simple, not a composite, disease."
3. "The drug must be tested with two contrary types of diseases, because sometimes a drug cures one disease by Its essential qualities and another by its accidental ones."
4. "The quality of the drug must correspond to the strength of the disease. For example, there are some drugs whose heat is less than the coldness of certain diseases, so that they would have no effect on them."
5. "The time of action must be observed, so that essence and accident are not confused."
6. For a drug's effect to be considered valid, it must be observed consistently or in a significant number of cases; otherwise, any observed outcome would be deemed accidental.
7. Drug experimentation must be conducted on human subjects, as trials involving animals such as lions or horses may not yield relevant insights into the drug's effects on humans.

Peer Review

The inaugural documented description of a peer review process is contained within Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi's (854–931) Ethics of the Physician, originating from al-Raha, Syria, which outlines the first medical peer review methodology. This work, alongside later Arabic medical manuals, stipulated that a visiting physician must consistently create duplicate records of a patient's condition during every visit. Following the patient's recovery or death, a local medical council of other physicians would examine the practitioner's notes to determine if their performance met the requisite standards of medical care. Negative reviews could result in the practicing physician facing a lawsuit from a patient who had received inadequate treatment.

Other Fields

Epistemology

Avicenna's most influential epistemological theory is his theory of knowledge, wherein he developed the concept of tabula rasa. He contended that the "human intellect at birth is rather like a tabula rasa, a pure potentiality that is actualized through education and comes to know." He further proposed that knowledge is acquired through "empirical familiarity with objects in this world from which one abstracts universal concepts," a process developed via a "syllogistic method of reasoning; observations lead to prepositional statements, which when compounded lead to further abstract concepts."

In the 12th century, Ibn Tufail further elaborated on the concept of tabula rasa within his Arabic novel, Hayy ibn Yaqzan. This narrative portrays the intellectual development of a feral child "from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society" on a desert island. The Latin translation of this work, titled Philosophus Autodidactus and published by Edward Pococke the Younger in 1671, subsequently influenced John Locke's formulation of tabula rasa in his influential text, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.

Eschatology

Islamic eschatology focuses on the Qiyamah (the end of the world and Last Judgment) and the ultimate judgment of humanity. This field of study represents one of the six articles of faith (aqidah) in Islam. Consistent with other Abrahamic religions, Islam teaches the bodily resurrection of the dead, the fulfillment of a divine plan for creation, and the immortality of the human soul (though Jewish traditions do not universally view the soul as eternal). The righteous are rewarded with the pleasures of Jannah (Heaven), while the unrighteous are subjected to punishment in Jahannam (Hell). A substantial portion, specifically one-third, of the Quran addresses these beliefs, with numerous hadith providing extensive details and elaborations. Islamic apocalyptic literature, which describes Armageddon, is commonly known as fitna (a test) and malahim (or ghayba in the Shi'a tradition).

Ibn al-Nafis extensively addressed Islamic eschatology in his treatise, Theologus Autodidactus. In this work, he rationalized the Islamic perspective on eschatology, employing reason and scientific principles to explain the events foretold by Islamic tradition. By presenting his rational and scientific arguments within an Arabic fictional narrative, Theologus Autodidactus is arguably considered the earliest work of science fiction.

Legal Philosophy

Sharia (Arabic: شَرِيعَةٌ) designates the comprehensive body of Islamic law. The term signifies "way" or "path," representing the legal framework that regulates public and certain private aspects of life for those within a legal system based on Islamic jurisprudential principles. Fiqh, which denotes Islamic jurisprudence, encompasses the rulings issued by Islamic jurists. As a fundamental component of Islamic studies, Fiqh elucidates the methodology for deriving Islamic law from its primary and secondary sources.

Mainstream Islamic discourse distinguishes fiqh, which involves the understanding of detailed inferences drawn by scholars, from sharia, which pertains to the foundational principles underpinning fiqh. Although scholars endeavor to ensure harmony between fiqh and sharia in every specific case, absolute certainty cannot be guaranteed.

Philosophical Novels

Islamic philosophers Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) and Ibn al-Nafis are recognized as pioneers of the philosophical novel. Ibn Tufail authored the first fictional Arabic novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (also known as Philosophus Autodidactus), as a direct response to al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers. Subsequently, Ibn al-Nafis composed his own fictional novel, Theologus Autodidactus, in response to Ibn Tufail's Philosophus Autodidactus. Both narratives feature protagonists—Hayy in Philosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus—who are autodidactic individuals, spontaneously generated in a cave and living in seclusion on a desert island, representing the earliest examples of a desert island story. However, while Hayy's narrative in Philosophus Autodidactus primarily confines him to the desert island, Kamil's story in Theologus Autodidactus extends beyond this setting, developing into what is considered the first instance of a science fiction novel.

Ibn al-Nafis characterized his book, Theologus Autodidactus, as an apologetic for "the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines concerning prophetic missions, religious laws, bodily resurrection, and the transitoriness of the world." He presents rational arguments for bodily resurrection and the immortality of the human soul, substantiating his claims through both demonstrative reasoning and material from the hadith corpus. Later Islamic scholars interpreted this work as a direct response to the metaphysical assertion by Avicenna and Ibn Tufail that bodily resurrection cannot be proven through reason, a viewpoint that al-Ghazali had previously critiqued.

A Latin translation of Philosophus Autodidactus, prepared by Edward Pococke the Younger, was published in 1671. The first English translation, by Simon Ockley, appeared in 1708, with German and Dutch translations also published concurrently. Philosophus Autodidactus subsequently exerted significant influence on European literature, becoming an influential best-seller throughout Western Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. These translations later inspired Daniel Defoe to author Robinson Crusoe, a work that similarly featured a desert island narrative and is widely regarded as the first novel in English.

Philosophus Autodidactus also exerted a "profound influence" on modern Western philosophy, being recognized as "one of the most important books that heralded the Scientific Revolution" and the European Enlightenment. The philosophical concepts articulated within the novel are discernible, in varying forms and extents, in the writings of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Isaac Newton, and Immanuel Kant. The novel notably inspired the concept of "tabula rasa," which John Locke, a student of Pococke, further developed in his 1690 work, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Furthermore, Philosophus Autodidactus explored themes such as empiricism, tabula rasa, the nature versus nurture debate, the condition of possibility, materialism, and Molyneux's Problem. Robert Boyle, another associate of Pococke, was also inspired by the novel to compose his own island-set philosophical work, The Aspiring Naturalist. Additional European scholars influenced by Philosophus Autodidactus include Gottfried Leibniz, Melchisédech Thévenot, John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens, George Keith, Robert Barclay, the Quakers, and Samuel Hartlib.

Political Philosophy

Early Islamic political philosophy emphasized an inextricable link between science and religion, alongside the process of ijtihad for discerning truth. Consequently, all philosophy was inherently "political," given its tangible implications for governance. This perspective faced opposition from Mutazilite philosophers, who espoused a more secular viewpoint and received backing from a secular aristocracy seeking autonomy from the Caliphate. During the medieval period, the sole Greek political treatises known to Muslim scholars were Plato's Republic and Laws. Nevertheless, by the conclusion of the Islamic Golden Age, the Asharite interpretation of Islam had generally prevailed.

Islamic political philosophy was fundamentally rooted in the core sources of Islam, namely the Qur'an and the Sunnah, which encompass the sayings and practices of Muhammad. However, Western scholarship often attributes its development primarily to the great philosophers of Islam: al-Kindi (Alkindus), al-Farabi (Alfarabi), Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Bajjah (Avempace), Ibn Rushd (Averroes), and Ibn Khaldun. Islamic political concepts such as *kudrah*, *sultan*, *ummah*, *cemaa*, and even the foundational Qur'anic terms *ibada*, *din*, *rab*, and *ilah*, serve as foundational concepts for analysis. Consequently, not only Muslim political philosophers but also numerous jurists and ulama contributed political ideas and theories. For instance, the early ideas of the Khawarij concerning Khilafa and Ummah, or those of Shia Islam regarding the concept of Imamah, demonstrate early forms of political thought. The conflicts between the Ahl al-Sunnah and Shia in the 7th and 8th centuries possessed a distinct political dimension.

The 14th-century Arab scholar Ibn Khaldun is recognized as one of the foremost political theorists. The British philosopher-anthropologist Ernest Gellner regarded Ibn Khaldun's definition of government, "an institution which prevents injustice other than such as it commits itself," as the most insightful in the history of political theory.

Philosophy of History

The initial comprehensive studies on historiography and the first critiques of historical methods are found in the writings of the Arab Ash'ari polymath Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406). He is often credited as the progenitor of historiography, cultural history, and the philosophy of history, particularly due to his historiographical contributions in the Muqaddimah (Latinized as Prolegomena) and Kitab al-Ibar (Book of Advice). His Muqaddimah also established foundational insights into the role of the state, communication, propaganda, and systematic bias in history, and he explored the rise and fall of civilizations.

Franz Rosenthal stated in the History of Muslim Historiography:

Islamic historiography has consistently maintained a profound connection with the broader evolution of scholarship within Islam, and the prominence of historical knowledge in Muslim education significantly shaped the intellectual caliber of historical writing. Muslim scholars made substantial progress beyond earlier historical traditions through their sociological comprehension of history and the systematic organization of historiography. The advancement of modern historical scholarship appears to have accelerated significantly and deepened in content through the engagement with Islamic literature, which allowed Western historians, beginning in the 17th century, to perceive a substantial portion of the world from an external perspective. Islamic historiography thus contributed, albeit indirectly and modestly, to the formation of contemporary historical thought.

Philosophy of Religion

A significant inquiry concerns the relationship between religion and philosophy, particularly regarding reason and faith. While Islamic civilization placed immense importance on religion, it also developed specific doctrines concerning the interplay of reason and religious belief.

Social Philosophy

The social philosopher and Ash'ari polymath Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) is recognized as the last prominent Islamic philosopher from Tunis, North Africa. In his Muqaddimah, he formulated some of the earliest theories in social philosophy, specifically addressing concepts of social cohesion and conflict. His Muqaddimah also served as the introduction to his seven-volume analysis of universal history.

Ibn Khaldun is credited by some scholars as the "father of sociology," "father of historiography," and "father of the philosophy of history," owing to his pioneering detailed discussions of these subjects.

Judeo-Islamic Philosophies

Islamic philosophy resonated with Jewish scholars, who are credited with its transmission to the Christian world. Prominent figures, including the Ibn Tibbons, Narboni, and Gersonides, actively translated and commented upon Arabic philosophical texts into Hebrew. Ibn Rushd's works, in particular, became a significant focus of their scholarship, largely influenced by Maimonides, who highly praised Ibn Rushd's commentary in a letter to his student Joseph ben Judah.

Saadia Gaon (892–942) authored the earliest extant Jewish religio-philosophical treatise in Arabic, titled Emunot ve-Deot, or "The Book of Beliefs and Opinions." In this seminal work, Saadia addresses inquiries pertinent to the Mutakallamin, including the genesis of matter, divine unity, the attributes of God, and the nature of the soul. Saadia expresses strong disapproval of other philosophical perspectives. He posited that creation presented no theological dilemma, asserting that God created the world ex nihilo, consistent with biblical accounts. Furthermore, he challenged the Mutakallamin's atomic theory, deeming it antithetical to both reason and religious doctrine, much like the philosophers' assertion of the eternity of matter.

Saadia employed the Mutakallamin's arguments to substantiate the unity of God, contending that only essential attributes (sifat al-dhatia) are applicable to the divine, not attributes of action (sifat-al-fi'aliya). He conceptualized the soul as a substance of greater subtlety than even the celestial spheres. This stance directly contradicted the Mutakallamin, who regarded the soul as an "accident" or 'arad (cf. Guide for the Perplexed i. 74). To bolster his argument, Saadia utilized a premise from their own philosophy: "Only a substance can be the substratum of an accident" (i.e., a non-essential property). He reasoned, "If the soul were merely an accident, it could not possess accidents such as wisdom, joy, or love." Consequently, Saadia largely aligned with Kalam philosophy, with any deviations stemming from his distinct religious convictions.

Given the pervasive influence of Persian and Arabian intellectual and literary movements on Jewish thought, Al-Ghazali's philosophical approach found a parallel in Judah ha-Levi. This poet endeavored to liberate his religious beliefs from what he perceived as the constraints of speculative philosophy, culminating in his work, the "Kuzari." In this text, he aimed to invalidate all philosophical schools. He critically admonished the Mutakallimun for their attempts to buttress religious doctrine with philosophical reasoning, stating, "I consider him to have attained the highest degree of perfection who is convinced of religious truths without having scrutinized them and reasoned over them" ("Kuzari," v.). Ha-Levi then condensed the primary Mutakallamin propositions for demonstrating divine unity into ten points, elaborating on each before concluding with the question: "Does the Kalam give us iii. and iv.). Aristotelianism garnered no favor from Judah ha-Levi due to its detailed and critical nature; only Neoplatonism resonated with him to some extent, owing to its consonance with his poetic sensibilities.

The resurgence of a more rigorous Aristotelianism, exemplified by Averroes, found its Jewish parallel in the writings of Maimonides. Subsequent Jewish philosophers, including Gersonides and Elijah Delmedigo, adhered to the Averroist school, thereby contributing to the dissemination of Averroist philosophy throughout medieval Europe.

Jewish translators in Spain and Italy, notably Abraham de Balmes and Jacob Mantino, rendered Arabic philosophical texts into Hebrew and Latin, a process that significantly advanced the evolution of modern European philosophy.

Subsequent Islamic Philosophy

The demise of Ibn Rushd (Averroës) is often considered to signify the conclusion of a specific branch of Islamic philosophy, commonly referred to as the Peripatetic Arabic School. Consequently, philosophical endeavors experienced a notable decline in Western Islamic regions, specifically Islamic Spain and North Africa, although they endured considerably longer in Eastern territories, particularly Iran and India. In contrast to conventional perspectives, Dimitri Gutas and the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy propose that the period spanning the 11th to 14th centuries represents the authentic "Golden Age" of Arabic and Islamic philosophy. This era was inaugurated by Al-Ghazali's successful incorporation of logic into the Madrasah curriculum and the subsequent emergence of Avicennism.

Following the political transition in Western Europe, specifically Spain and Portugal, from Muslim to Christian governance, the practice of philosophy by Muslims in this region ceased. This shift also contributed to a diminished intellectual exchange between the western and eastern Islamic domains. Nevertheless, philosophical inquiry persisted among Muslims in the East, as demonstrated by the contributions of Ottoman scholars and particularly those residing in Muslim polities within the contemporary territories of Iran and India, including figures such as Shah Waliullah and Ahmad Sirhindi. This sustained philosophical activity has largely been overlooked by most pre-modern historians of Islamic (or Arabic) philosophy. Furthermore, the teaching of logic has been maintained in religious seminaries into the modern era.

Academic inquiry into Islamic philosophy has historically concentrated on the classical period (circa 800-1200), which significantly impacted medieval and Renaissance Europe. In contrast, the post-classical tradition (circa 1100-1900) has received comparatively less scholarly attention. Despite the extensive philosophical literature generated during this later era, a substantial portion exists solely in manuscript form and remains unedited. Recent bibliographical efforts have identified nearly 3,000 Arabic philosophical texts from the 1100-1900 period; however, most of these works have not undergone systematic academic scrutiny, with approximately 85% remaining unpublished. Even among the more influential texts, only a limited selection has been comprehensively catalogued or made available in contemporary editions. Consequently, existing historical narratives offer merely an incomplete and preliminary understanding of post-classical Islamic philosophy, leaving crucial aspects of its intellectual evolution, its central role in traditional Islamic educational curricula, and its conceptual links with preceding and subsequent periods inadequately explored.

Subsequent to Ibn Rushd, numerous later schools of Islamic philosophy emerged, including those established by Ibn Arabi and the Shi'ite Mulla Sadra. These emergent schools hold particular significance due to their continued active presence within the Islamic world. Prominent among these are:

• The School of Illumination (Hikmat al-Ishraq)
• Transcendent Theosophy (Hikmat Muta'aliah)
• Sufi Philosophy
• The Traditionalist School
• Avicennism (Hikmat Sinavi)

The Illuminationist School

Illuminationist philosophy, established by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi in the 12th century, represents a distinct school within Islamic thought. This philosophical tradition integrates elements of Avicenna's philosophy and ancient Iranian philosophical concepts, augmented by Suhrawardi's numerous innovative contributions. It is frequently characterized as having been influenced by Neoplatonism.

Within the domain of logic in Islamic philosophy, the Illuminationist school, founded by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi (1155–1191), produced systematic refutations of Greek logic. Suhrawardi notably advanced the concept of "decisive necessity," which constituted a significant innovation in the historical trajectory of logical philosophical inquiry.

The Transcendent School

Transcendent Theosophy constitutes a school of Islamic philosophy established by Mulla Sadra in the 17th century. His philosophical and ontological contributions are regarded as being as pivotal to Islamic philosophy as Martin Heidegger's work later became to 20th-century Western philosophy. Mulla Sadra introduced "a new philosophical insight in dealing with the nature of reality" and initiated "a major transition from essentialism to existentialism" within Islamic philosophy, predating its emergence in Western philosophy by several centuries.

The philosophical tenet that "essence precedes existence" originates with Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and his school of Avicennism, as well as with Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi and his Illuminationist philosophy. Conversely, the concept that "existence precedes essence" was subsequently articulated in the writings of Averroes and Mulla Sadra, emerging as a response to the former idea and serving as a fundamental principle of existentialism.

Mulla Sadra posited that "existence precedes the essence and is thus principle since something has to exist first and then have an essence." This assertion forms the core argument of his Transcendent Theosophy. Sayyid Jalal Ashtiyani subsequently encapsulated Mulla Sadra's concept with the following statement:

The existent being that possesses an essence must consequently be caused, and existence that is pure existence... is therefore a Necessary Being.

Rigorous methodologies are essential for examining Islamic philosophers and theologians, particularly through phenomenological investigations in ontology (or onto-theology) or via comparative analyses with Heidegger's philosophical framework and his critique of metaphysical history.

Contemporary Islamic Philosophy

The tradition of Islamic philosophy remains vibrant, particularly among adherents of Suhrawardi's Hikmat al-Ishraq (Illumination Philosophy) and Mulla Sadra's Hikmat-e-Mota'aliye (Transcendent Theosophy). Additionally, Muhammad Iqbal stands out for reconfiguring and invigorating Islamic philosophy among Muslims of the Indian subcontinent during the early 20th century. His work, The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, represents a seminal contribution to modern Islamic political philosophy.

The pedagogical tradition of hikmat or hikmah continues to flourish across contemporary Islamic regions.

• Abdolkarim Soroush (born 1945) is an Iranian philosopher and religious reformist, recognized as a notable proponent of Kantian categories within Islamic thought.
• Ruhollah Khomeini, the founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran, taught the philosophical school of Hikmat-ul-Mutaliya. Prior to the Islamic Revolution, he was among the select few who formally instructed philosophy at the Religious Seminary in Qom.
• Grand Ayatollah Abdollah Javadi-Amoli is an Iranian Twelver Shi'a Marja', a conservative Iranian politician, and a prominent Islamic scholar associated with the Hawza (seminary) in Qom.
• Ahmad Milad Karimi is an Afghan philosopher of religion and a professor of Islamic Philosophy at the University of Münster in Germany.
• Grand Ayatollah Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah-Yazdi is an Iranian Twelver Shi'a cleric and a staunch advocate for Islamic philosophy, particularly Hikmat Mutaliyyah.
• Geydar Dzhemal, a Russian Islamic philosopher, authored Orientation - North. and served as a foundational ideologist for Islamic Marxism.
• Grand Ayatollah Muhammad Husayn Tabataba'i (Allameh Tabatabaei) was an Iranian Twelver Shi'a cleric whose extensive bibliography includes the 27-volume Quranic commentary al-Mizan (الميزان).
• Hamka, also known as Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amirullah, was a distinguished Indonesian author, Ulama, politician, and philosopher, who authored Tafsir Al-Azhar. He presided over Indonesia's mufti council (MUI) but tendered his resignation following the Suharto regime's condemnation of his fatwa against Muslim celebrations of Christmas. He garnered significant respect within Indonesia and was also esteemed in Malaysia and Singapore.
• Murtaza Motahhari, a leading disciple of Allamah Tabatabai and martyred during the Iranian Revolution in 1979, was an author whose extensive writings include an incomplete compilation spanning 25 volumes. Like his teachers Allamah Tabatabai and Ayatollah Khomeini, he adhered to the philosophical schools of Hikmat-ul-Mutaliya.
• Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi, recognized for originating modern Islamist political thought in the 20th century, founded Jamaat-e-Islami and dedicated his life to revitalizing the Islamic intellectual tradition.
• Israr Ahmed (1932–2010) was a Pakistani Islamic theologian whose influence extended particularly across South Asia and among the South Asian diaspora in the Middle East, Western Europe, and North America. As the founder of Tanzeem-e-Islami, an offshoot of Jamaat-e-Islami, he was a significant scholar of Islam and the Quran.
• Muhammad Hamidullah (1908–2002) hailed from a lineage of scholars, jurists, writers, and Sufis. This globally recognized scholar of Islam and international law from India was noted for his contributions to Hadith historical research, Quranic translations, the promotion of classical Islamic scholarship, and the propagation of Islamic principles in the Western world.
• Fazlur Rahman served as a professor of Islamic thought at the University of Chicago.
• Wahid Hasyim served as the inaugural Indonesian Minister of Religious Affairs. He previously led the Indonesian Nahdlatul Ulama and founded Islamic state universities in Indonesia, being primarily recognized for his reforms to the Madrasah curriculum.
• Seyyed Hossein Nasr is a prominent perennialist thinker whose scholarship is marked by a sustained critique of contemporary scientific paradigms and an advocacy for Islamic and perennialist tenets. Nasr contends that modern knowledge has undergone a process of desacralization, becoming detached from its divine origin, God. Consequently, he advocates for its resacralization through the integration of sacred traditions and sacred science.
• Javed Ahmad Ghamidi is a distinguished Pakistani Islamic scholar, exegete, and educator. Formerly affiliated with the Jamaat-e-Islami, Ghamidi further developed the intellectual contributions of his mentor, Amin Ahsan Islahi.
• In Malaysia, Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas is recognized as a prominent metaphysical thinker.
• Ali Shariati was an Iranian revolutionary thinker and sociologist whose work primarily explored the intersections of Marxism and Islam.
• Abu Abd al-Rahman Ibn Aqil al-Zahiri (born 1942) is a Saudi Arabian polymath whose primary intellectual pursuit involves the reconciliation of reason and revelation.
• Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr (died 1980) was an Iraqi Shi'ite Grand Ayatollah and a highly influential Islamic philosopher of the 20th century. His seminal philosophical contributions include the works "Our Philosophy" and "The Logical Foundations of Induction." Furthermore, he is recognized for his economic treatises, such as "Our Economics" and "The Non-Usury Banking System," which are considered foundational texts in contemporary Islamic economics.

Muhammad Iqbal

Muhammad Iqbal dismisses conventional arguments for divine existence (ontological, cosmological, and teleological) as logically deficient. Operating from a premise of substance monism, Iqbal formulated an original argument for God's existence, drawing inspiration from thinkers such as Berkeley, Russel, Whithead, Albert Einstein, and Henri Bergson. His argument finds its Quranic basis in verse 57:3: "He is the First and the Last, the Ascendant and the Intimate, and He is, of all things, Knowing." Despite this inspiration, Iqbal critically evaluates these authors, challenging arguments he deems illogical or inconsistent with his Quranic interpretation. For instance, he repudiates Bergson's concept of determinism. Iqbal posits that the Quranic depiction of the universe suggests an unfolding, inductive process of creation rather than a predetermined design.

Iqbal interprets the Quranic representation of the world as a unified creation where the real and the ideal converge. This world represents the actualization of a rational concept within a continuous creative process. According to Iqbal, humanity, as the most dynamic component of the world, serves as God's primary instrument for actualizing the world's infinite possibilities. He argues that time and space alone are insufficient to account for all universal elements; instead, the existence of a "self" is necessitated. The ultimate truth of the universe, therefore, requires unity, consciousness, life, and a personal self. Given that no self can exist devoid of personality, Iqbal posits that "nature in relation to the divine Self is what is the human personality to human self."

Iqbal asserts that the significance of the individual self originates from the Quran. Humanity is depicted as divinely appointed stewards of the Earth. In contrast to the Christian doctrine of original sin, the Quran emphasizes the paramount importance of individual moral responsibility. Diverging from numerous earlier Muslim philosophers, Iqbal repudiates body-mind dualism, viewing it as an external imposition from Greek philosophy. Consequently, Iqbal argues that the Quranic understanding of the self constitutes a unified entity.

Ali Shariati

In the contemporary era, certain thinkers, such as Ali Shariati, have characterized Islamic philosophy as a form of realism. Conversely, an alternative perspective maintains that Islam transcends all other philosophical "isms."

Criticism

Islamic philosophy has faced considerable criticism from both historical and contemporary Muslim perspectives. Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal, the namesake of the Hanbali school of thought, notably condemned philosophical discourse, once admonishing its adherents by stating his own religious certainty while suggesting they were "in doubt, so go to a doubter and argue with him." In the contemporary era, Islamic philosophical thought continues to draw criticism from Salafi and Wahhabi movements. Historically, certain Wahhabi scholars have gone as far as to excommunicate philosophers, labeling them as heretics or even atheists.

While numerous Islamic thinkers did not embrace philosophy with enthusiasm, it is inaccurate to attribute their reservations solely to its classification as a "foreign science." Oliver Leaman, a scholar specializing in Islamic philosophy, highlights that prominent theologians' objections seldom target philosophy intrinsically, but rather the conclusions derived by philosophers. For instance, the 11th-century scholar al-Ghazali, renowned for his critique of philosophers in Incoherence of the Philosophers, was himself proficient in philosophy and logic. His critique stemmed from their arrival at theologically erroneous conclusions. He identified three particularly grave errors: affirming the co-eternity of the universe with God, denying bodily resurrection, and asserting that God possesses knowledge only of abstract universals, not of specific particulars, although not all philosophers endorsed these specific tenets.

In contemporary Muslim scholarship, efforts to "renew the impetus of philosophical thinking in Islam" have led philosopher and theorist Nader El-Bizri to critically analyze the prevailing academic and epistemic conventions in the study of Islamic philosophy. He contends that current methodological and historiographical approaches, often rooted in archival perspectives within Oriental and Medievalist Studies, fail to acknowledge Islamic philosophy's potential as a vibrant, ongoing intellectual tradition. El-Bizri posits that its revitalization necessitates a fundamental reform in the ontological and epistemological frameworks of Islamic thought. His interpretations of Avicenna (Ibn Sina), informed by Heidegger's critique of metaphysical history and the evolving essence of technology, seek to establish novel ontological pathways that transcend purely Avicennian or Heideggerian paradigms. Although El-Bizri's re-evaluation of falsafa is characterized as "Neo-Avicennism," it resonates with modern philosophical interpretations of Aristotelianism and Thomism. El-Bizri addresses contemporary philosophical issues through a rigorous critical analysis of the historical development of core ontological and epistemological concepts. His modernist perspective aims to infuse the tradition with innovation rather than merely replicating it or severing ties with it.

Maani’ Hammad al-Juhani, a member of the Consultative Council and General Director of the World Assembly of Muslim Youth, has reportedly stated that philosophy, as defined by its practitioners, constitutes "one of the most dangerous falsehoods and most vicious in fighting faith and religion on the basis of logic." He argues that philosophy's divergence from the moral principles of the Sunnah makes it susceptible to misusing reason, interpretation, and metaphor to distort religious texts and mislead individuals.

• Aql al-Fa'al
• Early Islamic philosophy
• Islam and modernity
• Islamic Golden Age
• List of Islamic studies scholars
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• Glossary of Islam
• Index of Islam-

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