Pantheism

Pantheism encompasses a range of philosophical and religious perspectives that identify reality with divinity. Pantheistic ideas possess ancient origins and have been recognized within diverse religious traditions, including Christianity. Fundamentally, pantheism posits that the totality of existence—variously referred to as Nature, the universe, or the cosmos—forms a self-organizing unity that requires no distinct creator, and can inspire the same reverence and awe that theists typically reserve for their gods.

Pantheism refers to a diverse family of philosophical and religious beliefs, that equate reality with divinity. Pantheistic concepts date back thousands of years, and pantheistic elements have been identified in diverse religious traditions, such as Christianity. Most notably, pantheism refers to the belief that the totality of being—called by various names Nature, universe, cosmos—is a self-organizing unity that needs no distinct creator, and can be met with the same sense of reveration and awe as theists attribute to their gods.

It is crucial to distinguish pantheism from panentheism, which asserts that divinity is an entity transcending the universe, from which the universe originates.

Pantheistic thought typically rejects the concept of a distinct, personal deity, whether anthropomorphic or otherwise. Instead, it encompasses a spectrum of doctrines that articulate varying relationships between reality and divinity. The term pantheism itself was first documented by the mathematician Joseph Raphson in 1697.

In Western culture, pantheism gained prominence through the 17th-century philosopher Baruch Spinoza, particularly his seminal work, Ethics. Earlier, in the 16th century, the philosopher and cosmologist Giordano Bruno also adopted a pantheistic perspective, for which he was executed by burning at the stake by the Catholic Church's Inquisition.

Eastern philosophical traditions also exhibit parallels with pantheism. Advaita Vedanta, a school of Hindu philosophy, is often compared to Western pantheism. Early Taoist thought, as articulated by Laozi and Zhuangzi, is occasionally categorized as pantheistic, though some interpretations suggest a closer affinity with panentheism. Additionally, Cheondoism, which emerged during Korea's Joseon Dynasty, and Won Buddhism are also identified as pantheistic.

Etymology

The term Pantheism originates from the Greek words πᾶν pan, meaning "all" or "of everything," and θεός theos, signifying "deity," "divinity," or "god." The initial documented synthesis of these roots occurred in Latin, within Joseph Raphson's 1697 work, De Spatio Reali seu Ente Infinito, where he employed the term "pantheismus." This Latin term was subsequently rendered into English as "pantheism" in 1702.

Definitions

Pantheism is characterized by several distinct definitions, including the following:

• a theological and philosophical stance that identifies God with the universe, or alternatively, views the universe as a manifestation of God;
• the conviction that all existence is an integral component of an all-encompassing, immanent God, implying that all forms of reality can be understood either as modes of this Being or as identical with it; and
• a non-religious philosophical perspective asserting the identity of the Universe (understood as the totality of all existence) and God.

History

Pre-Modern Era

Pantheism is primarily considered a polemical term, which explains the limited number of self-identified pantheists in ancient history.

Incidental expressions of pantheistic thought are discernible in animistic beliefs and tribal religions globally, particularly in traditions lacking central polytheistic or monotheistic deities, where they manifest as a sense of unity with the divine. Within Hellenistic theology, early documented references to pantheism appear in the ancient Greek religion of Orphism, where pan (the all) is equated with the creator deity Phanes (symbolizing the universe) and subsequently with Zeus, following the assimilation of Phanes.

Pantheistic inclinations were present in various Gnostic groups, and pantheistic ideas persisted throughout the Middle Ages. Notable proponents included mystics such as Ortlieb of Strasbourg, David of Dinant, Amalric of Bena, and Eckhart.

Some interpretations suggest that certain biblical passages, such as Acts 17:28 and Jeremiah 23:24, affirm pantheism. Conversely, other scholars argue that Acts 17:28 aligns more closely with panentheism than pantheism. Jacqueline Lagrée, for instance, suggests that while Acts 17:28 might be interpreted pantheistically, panentheism offers a more precise description of the concepts often associated with pantheism. Historically, the Catholic Church has consistently condemned pantheistic concepts as heresy. Sebastian Franck is recognized as an early figure exhibiting pantheistic views. Giordano Bruno, an Italian friar who advocated for a transcendent and infinite God, was executed by burning at the stake in 1600 by the Roman Inquisition. He is now widely regarded as a prominent pantheist and a martyr for scientific inquiry.

The Advaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy exhibits conceptual parallels with pantheism. The term Advaita, which literally translates to "non-secondness" but is commonly interpreted as "nondualism" and often equated with monism, posits that only Brahman possesses ultimate reality. The ephemeral phenomenal world is considered an illusory manifestation (maya) of Brahman. According to this perspective, the jivatman, or individual experiencing self, is fundamentally indistinguishable ("na aparah") from Ātman-Brahman, which represents the supreme Self or ultimate Reality. The jivatman, or individual self, is thus perceived as a mere reflection or a limited expression of the singular Ātman within numerous apparent individual forms.

Baruch Spinoza

In Western thought, pantheism gained formal recognition as a distinct theological and philosophical system, largely attributed to the contributions of the 17th-century philosopher Baruch Spinoza. Spinoza, a Dutch philosopher of Portuguese heritage, grew up within the Sephardi Jewish community in Amsterdam. His intellectual pursuits led him to formulate highly contentious theories concerning the veracity of the Hebrew Bible and the essence of the Divine. Consequently, at the age of 23, he was effectively ostracized from Jewish society following the issuance of a herem (excommunication) by the local synagogue. Several of his works were published posthumously, and soon after, they were added to the Catholic Church's Index of Forbidden Books.

In his posthumously released work, Ethics, Spinoza directly challenged René Descartes' renowned mind-body dualism, which posited a separation between the physical body and the spiritual mind. Spinoza, conversely, maintained a monistic perspective, asserting their fundamental identity, a principle central to his philosophical framework. He was characterized as a "God-intoxicated man" and employed the term "God" to denote the unified essence of all substances. This perspective significantly impacted subsequent philosophers, including Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, who famously declared, "You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all." Spinoza garnered acclaim as a preeminent rationalist of 17th-century philosophy and a pivotal figure in Western thought. Despite the term "pantheism" being coined subsequent to his lifetime, he is widely recognized as the concept's most prominent proponent. His treatise, Ethics, served as the primary conduit for the dissemination of Western pantheism.

18th Century

The earliest documented instance of the term "pantheism" appeared in Latin as "pantheismus," coined by the English mathematician Joseph Raphson in his 1697 publication, De Spatio Reali seu Ente Infinito. Raphson initiated his discussion by differentiating between atheistic "panhylists"—derived from the Greek roots pan ("all") and hyle ("matter"), who contend that all existence is material—and Spinozan "pantheists," who posit "a certain universal substance, material as well as intelligence, that fashions all things that exist out of its own essence." Raphson considered the universe to be beyond human comprehension, asserting that its vastness precluded complete understanding. He cited the pantheistic beliefs of various ancient cultures, including the Egyptians, Persians, Syrians, Assyrians, Greeks, Indians, and Jewish Kabbalists, with particular emphasis on Spinoza's philosophy.

The English rendition of Raphson's work in 1702 marked the initial appearance of the term in English. Subsequently, the Irish author John Toland further employed and disseminated the term in his 1705 publication, Socinianism Truly Stated, by a Pantheist. Toland, influenced by both Spinoza and Bruno, had engaged with Joseph Raphson's De Spatio Reali, which he referenced as "the ingenious Mr. Ralphson's (sic) Book of Real Space." Similar to Raphson, Toland interchangeably utilized the designations "pantheist" and "Spinozist." In 1720, he authored the Latin work Pantheisticon: or The Form of Celebrating the Socratic-Society, which conceptualized a pantheistic society adhering to the tenet: "All things in the world are one, and one is all in all things ... what is all in all things is God, eternal and immense, neither born nor ever to perish." Toland elucidated his understanding of pantheism in a 1710 letter to Gottfried Leibniz, wherein he described it as "the pantheistic opinion of those who believe in no other eternal being but the universe."

During the mid-eighteenth century, the English theologian Daniel Waterland articulated his definition of pantheism: "It supposes God and nature, or God and the whole universe, to be one and the same substance—one universal being; insomuch that men's souls are only modifications of the divine substance." Subsequently, in the early nineteenth century, the German theologian Julius Wegscheider characterized pantheism as the conviction that God and the divinely created world are fundamentally identical.

A philosophical dispute concerning Spinoza's ideas emerged among German thinkers Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, who critiqued them, and Moses Mendelssohn, who defended them, between 1785 and 1789. This event, known in German as the Pantheismusstreit (pantheism controversy), significantly contributed to the dissemination of pantheistic concepts among numerous German intellectuals.

The Nineteenth Century

Expanding Influence

In the early 19th century, pantheism gained prominence as a philosophical perspective embraced by numerous influential writers and philosophers. Notable adherents included William Wordsworth and Samuel Coleridge in Britain; Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel in Germany; Knut Hamsun in Norway; and Walt Whitman, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry David Thoreau in the United States. Recognizing its increasing perceived threat, the Vatican formally denounced pantheism in 1864 through Pope Pius IX's Syllabus of Errors.

In 2011, a letter penned in 1886 by William Herndon, Abraham Lincoln's legal associate, fetched US$30,000 at auction. This correspondence details the evolving religious perspectives of the U.S. President, which encompassed pantheistic beliefs.

"Mr. Lincoln's religious convictions are sufficiently clear to me to preclude any doubt; he is or was a Theist and a Rationalist, rejecting all extraordinary—supernatural inspiration or revelation. At a certain period in his life, at minimum, he held an advanced pantheistic view, questioning the immortality of the soul as understood by the Christian world. He posited that the soul, while immortal as a force, lost its individual identity. Following this phase, he progressed to a belief in God, and this represents the entirety of his religious evolution."

While this topic is inherently contentious, the letter's assertions align with Lincoln's generally reserved stance toward institutionalized religion.

Comparative Analysis with Non-Christian Faiths

Certain 19th-century theologians posited that several pre-Christian religions and philosophical systems exhibited pantheistic characteristics. They identified similarities between pantheism and the ancient Hindu philosophy of Advaita (non-dualism).

European theologians of the 19th century also identified pantheistic components within Ancient Egyptian religion, suggesting Egyptian philosophy as a foundational influence for Greek Pantheism. This Greek tradition encompassed certain Presocratic thinkers, including Heraclitus and Anaximander. Stoicism, which originated with Zeno of Citium and reached its zenith with the emperor-philosopher Marcus Aurelius, was inherently pantheistic. During the pre-Christian Roman Empire, Stoicism stood as one of three principal philosophical schools, alongside Epicureanism and Neoplatonism. Early Taoist thought, as articulated by Laozi and Zhuangzi, is occasionally categorized as pantheistic, though it may bear a closer resemblance to panentheism.

Cheondoism, which originated during Korea's Joseon Dynasty, and Won Buddhism are likewise regarded as pantheistic. The Realist Society of Canada proposes that the consciousness of a self-aware universe constitutes reality, presenting an alternative interpretation of Pantheism.

The Twentieth Century

During the latter part of the 20th century, certain proponents asserted that pantheism served as a foundational theological framework for Neopaganism. Concurrently, pantheists initiated the establishment of organizations dedicated exclusively to pantheism, thereby fostering its recognition as a distinct religious tradition.

The Twenty-First Century

Dorion Sagan, the son of scientist and science communicator Carl Sagan, co-authored the 2007 publication Dazzle Gradually: Reflections on the Nature of Nature with his mother, Lynn Margulis. Within the chapter titled "Truth of My Father," Sagan states that his "father believed in the God of Spinoza and Einstein, God not behind nature, but as nature, equivalent to it."

Pantheism was referenced in a Papal encyclical in 2009 and in a New Year's Day statement in 2010, both of which criticized the philosophy for rejecting human superiority over nature and for locating the origin of human 's salvation within the natural world.

In 2015, The Paradise Project, an organization committed to promoting and disseminating knowledge about pantheism, commissioned Los Angeles muralist Levi Ponce to create a 75-foot mural in Venice, California, situated near the organization's premises. The artwork features depictions of Albert Einstein, Alan Watts, Baruch Spinoza, Terence McKenna, Carl Jung, Carl Sagan, Emily Dickinson, Nikola Tesla, Friedrich Nietzsche, Ralph Waldo Emerson, W.E.B. Du Bois, Henry David Thoreau, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Rumi, Adi Shankara, and Laozi.

Classification Systems

Pantheism encompasses numerous variations, and diverse classification systems exist, which categorize these forms based on one or more continua or into distinct categories.

Determinism Spectrum

The philosopher Charles Hartshorne coined the term "Classical Pantheism" to characterize the deterministic philosophies espoused by Baruch Spinoza, the Stoics, and other kindred thinkers. Pantheism, defined as "All-is-God," is frequently linked with monism, or "All-is-One," and some scholars propose that it inherently implies determinism, or "All-is-Now." Albert Einstein articulated theological determinism by asserting that "the past, present, and future are an 'illusion'." This particular manifestation of pantheism has been labeled "extreme monism," wherein, as one commentator observed, "God decides or determines everything, including our supposed decisions." Additional examples of pantheistic systems inclined towards determinism include those developed by Ralph Waldo Emerson and Hegel.

Nevertheless, some scholars have contested the notion of treating every interpretation of "unity" as an aspect of pantheism, and certain pantheistic perspectives consider determinism an inaccurate or incomplete representation of nature. Notable proponents of such views include John Scotus Eriugena, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, and William James.

Degree of Belief

It is also possible to differentiate between two distinct forms of pantheism: one primarily religious and the other predominantly philosophical. The Columbia Encyclopedia elucidates this distinction:

"Should a pantheist commence with the conviction that the singular, ultimate reality, eternal and infinite, is God, then every finite and temporal entity is perceived merely as a constituent part of God. Nothing exists separately or distinctly from God, for God encompasses the entire universe. Conversely, if the foundational concept of the system posits that the overarching, inclusive unity is the world itself, or the cosmos, then God becomes subsumed within that unity, which may be termed nature."

Form of Monism

Philosophers and theologians have frequently posited that pantheism inherently suggests monism.

For the Aztecs, teotl represented the metaphysical omnipresence that generated the cosmos and all its constituents from within itself, as well as out of itself. This concept is articulated through a form of monistic pantheism, exemplified by the supreme deity Ometeotl, alongside an extensive pantheon of lesser gods and personifications of natural phenomena.

Other Classifications

In 1896, the theologian J. H. Worman delineated seven categories of pantheism: Mechanical or materialistic (God as the mechanical unity of existence); Ontological (fundamental unity, as in Spinoza); Dynamic; Psychical (God as the world's soul); Ethical (God as the universal moral order, as in Fichte); Logical (as in Hegel); and Pure (the absorption of God into nature, which Worman equated with atheism).

In 1984, Paul D. Feinberg, a professor of biblical and systematic theology at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, similarly identified seven classifications: Hylozoistic; Immanentistic; Absolutistic monistic; Relativistic monistic; Acosmic; Identity of opposites; and Neoplatonic or emanationistic.

Demographics

Prevalence

According to 2011 census data, the United Kingdom recorded the highest number of self-identified Pantheists. In 2011, approximately 1,000 Canadians identified their religious affiliation as "Pantheist," constituting 0.003% of the national population. By 2021, the number of Canadian pantheists had increased to 1,855, representing 0.005%. In Ireland, the number of pantheists rose from 202 in 1991, to 1,106 in 2002, to 1,691 in 2006, and further to 1,940 in 2011. In New Zealand, a single pantheist man was recorded in 1901. By 1906, the number of pantheists in New Zealand had increased sevenfold to 7 (comprising 6 males and 1 female), subsequently reaching 366 by 2006.

Age, Ethnicity, and Gender

The 2021 Canadian census data indicated that pantheists were somewhat more frequently found in the 20-39 age bracket compared to the general population. Conversely, individuals under 15 years of age were approximately four times less likely to identify as pantheist than the general populace.

The 2021 Canadian census also revealed that pantheists were less likely to belong to a recognized minority group than the general population, with 90.3% of pantheists not identifying with any minority group (compared to 73.5% of the general population). The census did not record any pantheists identifying as Arab, Southeast Asian, West Asian, Korean, or Japanese.

In Canada (2011), no significant gender disparity was observed regarding pantheism. However, in Ireland (2011), pantheists were marginally more likely to be female (1,074 pantheists, representing 0.046% of women) than male (866 pantheists, representing 0.038% of men). In contrast, the 2021 Canadian census indicated a slight male predominance among pantheists, with men constituting 51.5% of the total.

Related Concepts

Nature worship and nature mysticism are frequently conflated with pantheism. Harold Wood, founder of the Universal Pantheist Society, highlights a crucial distinction: Spinoza's philosophical identification of God with nature diverges significantly from contemporary pantheistic perspectives focused on environmental ethics. Spinoza's conception of "nature" in his worldview may differ substantially from the "nature" understood in modern scientific contexts. Nature mystics, including those who also identify as pantheists, often employ "nature" to denote the restricted natural environment, contrasting it with human-made constructs. This usage differs from the more expansive definition adopted by Spinoza and other pantheists, who refer to universal natural laws and the entirety of physical phenomena. While nature mysticism can align with pantheism, it is also compatible with theism and other philosophical stances. Historically, pantheism has been associated with animal worship, particularly within primal religious traditions.

Nontheism serves as an overarching classification encompassing diverse religious frameworks that do not conform to traditional theistic definitions, with pantheism often categorized within this broad designation.

Panentheism, a term derived from the Greek πᾶν (pân) "all," ἐν (en) "in," and θεός (theós) "God," signifying "all-in-God," was formally introduced in 19th-century Germany. This concept emerged as an endeavor to forge a philosophical synthesis between conventional theism and pantheism, asserting that God is fundamentally omnipresent within the physical cosmos while simultaneously existing "apart from" or "beyond" it as its ultimate Creator and Sustainer. Consequently, panentheism differentiates itself from pantheism by positing the additional tenet that God transcends the known world. The demarcation between pantheism and panentheism can become indistinct due to varying theological definitions of God, leading to scholarly disagreements regarding the classification of certain prominent figures.

Pandeism, another term originating from pantheism, is characterized by its integration of compatible aspects from both pantheism and deism. This philosophical perspective posits a Creator-deity that initially exists distinctly from the universe but subsequently transforms into it. The resulting universe, while similar in its current essence to a pantheistic one, differs fundamentally in its origin.

Panpsychism represents the philosophical position asserting that consciousness, mind, or soul constitutes an inherent and universal attribute of all entities. Certain adherents of pantheism also embrace distinct philosophical perspectives such as hylozoism (or panvitalism), which posits that all things are alive, and animism, a closely related view that attributes a soul or spirit to everything.

Pantheism in Religion

Traditional Religions

Numerous traditional and folk religious systems, encompassing African traditional religions and Native American spiritualities, exhibit characteristics that can be interpreted as pantheistic or as syncretic blends of pantheism with other worldviews, including polytheism and animism. Proponents of pantheism also identify pantheistic elements within certain expressions of Christianity.

Concepts akin to pantheism were present in Eastern religions, notably Hinduism, Confucianism, and Taoism, prior to the 18th century. While no direct evidence suggests these traditions influenced Spinoza's philosophical contributions, there is documentation indicating their impact on other contemporary thinkers, such as Leibniz, and later on Voltaire. Within Hinduism specifically, pantheistic perspectives coexist with panentheistic, polytheistic, monotheistic, and atheistic viewpoints.

Spirituality and New Religious Movements

Pantheism enjoys considerable popularity within contemporary spirituality and emerging religious movements, including Neopaganism and Theosophy. During the final quarter of the 20th century, two organizations explicitly incorporating "pantheism" in their names were established. The Universal Pantheist Society, founded in 1975, welcomes all forms of pantheism and advocates for environmental protection. The World Pantheist Movement is led by Paul Harrison, an environmentalist and author who previously served as vice president of the Universal Pantheist Society before his resignation in 1996. Incorporated in 1999, the World Pantheist Movement is dedicated solely to advancing naturalistic pantheism, a rigorously metaphysical and naturalistic interpretation of pantheism that some classify as a form of religious naturalism. This movement has been characterized as an instance of "dark green religion," emphasizing environmental ethics.

Notes

Sources

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