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George Berkeley
Philosophy

George Berkeley

TORIma Academy — Idealist Philosopher

George Berkeley

George Berkeley

George Berkeley ( BARK -lee ; 12 March 1685 – 14 January 1753), known as Bishop Berkeley (Bishop of Cloyne of the Anglican Church of Ireland), was an…

George Berkeley ( BARK-lee; 12 March 1685 – 14 January 1753), also known as Bishop Berkeley (Bishop of Cloyne of the Anglican Church of Ireland), was a prominent Anglo-Irish philosopher, author, and cleric. He is recognized as the originator of immaterialism, a philosophical doctrine he formulated, which subsequently became known as subjective idealism. The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer notably referred to him as "the father of idealism." Berkeley was a pivotal figure and pioneer within the empiricism movement, and his influence was substantial, positioning him among the most frequently referenced philosophers in 18th-century Europe, with his writings profoundly impacting subsequent intellectuals like Immanuel Kant and David Hume.

George Berkeley ( BARK-lee; 12 March 1685 – 14 January 1753), known as Bishop Berkeley (Bishop of Cloyne of the Anglican Church of Ireland), was an Anglo-Irish philosopher, writer, and clergyman who is regarded as the founder of immaterialism, a philosophical theory he developed which later came to be known as subjective idealism. He has also been called "the father of idealism" by German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer. Berkeley played a leading role in the empiricism movement and was one of its pioneers. He was among the most cited philosophers of 18th-century Europe, and his works deeply influenced later thinkers such as Immanuel Kant and David Hume.

Berkeley's initial significant publication, An Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision, appeared in 1709, in which he explored the constraints of human sight, proposing that the true objects of visual perception are not material entities but rather light and color. This essay served as a precursor to his most renowned philosophical treatise, A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, released in 1710. Following its initial unfavorable reception, Berkeley revised this treatise into a dialogue format, publishing it in 1713 as Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous. Within this latter text, Philonous (from Greek, meaning "lover of mind") articulates Berkeley's philosophical positions, while Hylas (derived from "hyle," Greek for "matter") personifies his intellectual adversaries, notably John Locke.

In 1721, Berkeley challenged Isaac Newton's concepts of absolute space, time, and motion in his work De Motu (On Motion); his arguments in this treatise significantly anticipated the later theories of Ernst Mach and Albert Einstein. He subsequently published Alciphron in 1732, a Christian apologetic aimed at free-thinkers, and The Analyst in 1734, a critical examination of calculus's foundational principles that proved influential in mathematical development. Central to his immaterialist philosophy, Berkeley's theory posits that material substance does not exist; instead, he asserted that common objects, such as tables and chairs, are mental perceptions and thus depend on being perceived for their existence. Furthermore, Berkeley is recognized for his critique of abstraction, a fundamental element supporting his immaterialist stance.

Berkeley passed away in Oxford in 1753 and was interred in Christ Church Cathedral. He is widely considered the most influential Irish philosopher, with scholarly interest in his work escalating considerably post-World War II due to his engagement with critical 20th-century philosophical concerns, including perception, the distinction between primary and secondary qualities, and the role of language. In the early 19th century, public fascination with his philosophical concepts grew substantially in the United States, and consequently, several institutions and locations were named in his honor, including the University of California, Berkeley, the city of Berkeley, California, and Berkeley College at Yale University.

Biography

Ireland

George Berkeley was born at Dysart Castle, his family residence near Thomastown, County Kilkenny, Ireland. He was the eldest son of William Berkeley, a junior member of the distinguished Berkeley family, whose lineage extends to the Anglo-Saxon era and who held positions as feudal lords and landowners in Gloucestershire, England. Details regarding his mother are scarce, and he was the eldest among six brothers.

Berkeley received his education at Kilkenny College before matriculating at Trinity College Dublin. He was designated a Scholar in 1702, earning his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1704, followed by a Master of Arts and a Junior Fellowship in 1707. Subsequent to completing his degrees, he continued his association with Trinity College, serving as a librarian, a lecturer in Greek, and a preacher.

Although his initial publication focused on mathematics, Berkeley first gained significant recognition with his work An Essay towards a New Theory of Vision, initially released in 1709. Within this essay, Berkeley meticulously analyzed concepts such as visual distance, magnitude, position, and the intricate relationship between sight and touch. Despite generating considerable debate upon its publication, the conclusions presented in this work are now considered fundamental tenets within the field of optics.

Berkeley was ordained as a priest in 1710; however, this ordination proceeded without consultation with the Archbishop of Dublin, William King, resulting in subsequent legal proceedings.

His subsequent publication was the Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge in 1710. He posited that the physical world and material objects are solely aggregates of ideas, existing only through perception. Despite achieving considerable acclaim and establishing his enduring reputation, his theory that reality is mind-dependent garnered limited acceptance. Subsequently, in 1713, he released Three Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous. This work articulated his philosophical system, whose central tenet asserts that the world, as apprehended by our senses, relies on perception for its existence.

The Principles provided the exposition of this theory, while the Dialogues offered its defense. A primary aim was to challenge the prevalent materialism of his era. The theory largely met with derision; even prominent figures like Samuel Clarke and William Whiston, who recognized his "extraordinary genius," remained unconvinced by his foundational principles.

England and Europe

Subsequently, Berkeley traveled to England, where he was welcomed into the intellectual circle of Addison, Pope, and Steele. Between 1714 and 1720, he combined his scholarly pursuits with extensive European travels, notably undertaking one of the most comprehensive Grand Tours of Italy recorded. By 1721, he had been ordained in the Church of Ireland, obtained his doctorate in divinity, and opted to continue at Trinity College Dublin, where he lectured in Divinity and Hebrew. He was appointed Dean of Dromore in 1721/2 and Dean of Derry in 1724.

In 1723, Berkeley was designated a co-heir of Esther Vanhomrigh, sharing the inheritance with barrister Robert Marshall. This designation occurred after Vanhomrigh's significant dispute with Jonathan Swift, her long-standing close friend. Vanhomrigh's selection of beneficiaries generated considerable astonishment, as she was not closely acquainted with either individual, though Berkeley had known her father in his youth. Swift reportedly expressed no resentment regarding Berkeley's inheritance, a substantial portion of which was subsequently lost in litigation. The assertion that Berkeley and Marshall ignored an inheritance condition requiring the publication of correspondence between Swift and Vanessa is likely apocryphal.

In 1725, Berkeley initiated a project to establish a college in Bermuda, intended for the training of ministers and missionaries within the colony; to pursue this endeavor, he relinquished his deanery, which provided an income of £1,100.

Marriage and America

On August 1, 1728, in London at St Mary le Strand, Berkeley married Anne Forster, daughter of John Forster, Chief Justice of the Irish Common Pleas, and his first wife, Rebecca Monck. Subsequently, he relocated to America, receiving an annual salary of £100. He disembarked near Newport, Rhode Island, acquiring a plantation in Middletown, famously known as "Whitehall." Berkeley acquired several enslaved Africans to labor on the plantation. In 2023, Trinity College Dublin removed Berkeley's name from one of its libraries due to his ownership of enslaved people and his explicit defense of slavery.

It is asserted that he introduced Palladianism to America by adapting a design from [William] Kent's Designs of Inigo Jones for the door-case of his Rhode Island residence, Whitehall. He also facilitated the relocation to New England of John Smibert, a Scottish artist he encountered in Italy, who is widely considered the progenitor of American portrait painting. Concurrently, he developed blueprints for an envisioned ideal city in Bermuda. He resided at the plantation, awaiting the arrival of funds for his proposed college. However, the anticipated funding failed to materialize. As his persuasive efforts in London ceased, opposition intensified, and Prime Minister Walpole became increasingly skeptical and unenthusiastic. Ultimately, it became evident that the crucial Parliamentary grant would not be approved, leading to his departure from America and return to London in 1732.

Berkeley and Anne had four children who survived infancy—Henry, George, William, and Julia—in addition to at least two others who did not. William's demise in 1751 profoundly distressed his father.

Episcopate in Ireland

Berkeley received his nomination as Bishop of Cloyne within the Church of Ireland on January 18, 1734. His consecration followed on May 19, 1734. He served as Bishop of Cloyne until his demise on January 14, 1753, notwithstanding his death occurring in Oxford.

Humanitarian Endeavors

During his residence on Saville Street in London, Berkeley participated in initiatives aimed at establishing an institution for the city's orphaned children. The Foundling Hospital was subsequently chartered by royal decree in 1739, with Berkeley recorded as one of its inaugural governors.

Later Publications

Berkeley's final two publications were Siris: A Chain of Philosophical Reflexions and Inquiries Concerning the Virtues of Tarwater, And divers other Subjects connected together and arising one from another (1744) and Further Thoughts on Tar-water (1752). While pine tar is recognized as an effective antiseptic and disinfectant for topical application to skin abrasions, Berkeley advocated for its broader use as a universal remedy for various ailments. His 1744 treatise on tar-water achieved greater sales than any of his other literary works during his lifetime.

Berkeley resided in Cloyne until his retirement in 1752. Subsequently, he relocated to Oxford with his wife and daughter, Julia, to live with his son George and oversee his education. He passed away shortly thereafter and was interred in Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford. His amiable temperament and congenial demeanor garnered him considerable affection and high esteem among his contemporaries. Anne, his wife, survived him by several years, dying in 1786.

Philosophical Contributions

Berkeley's philosophical framework posits the existence of only two fundamental categories of entities: spirits and ideas. Spirits are characterized as simple, active beings responsible for generating and perceiving ideas; conversely, ideas are passive entities that are both produced and perceived.

The concepts of "spirit" and "idea" constitute foundational elements within Berkeley's philosophical system. In his usage, these terms present challenges for direct translation into contemporary terminology. His notion of "spirit" approximates the modern understanding of a "conscious subject" or "mind," while his concept of "idea" aligns closely with "sensation," "state of mind," or "conscious experience."

Consequently, Berkeley rejected the existence of matter as a metaphysical substance, yet he affirmed the reality of physical objects like apples or mountains. He articulated this distinction by stating, "I do not argue against the existence of any one thing that we can apprehend, either by sense or reflection. That the things I see with mine eyes and touch with my hands do exist, really exist, I make not the least question. The only thing whose existence we deny, is that which philosophers call matter or corporeal substance. And in doing of this, there is no damage done to the rest of mankind, who, I dare say, will never miss it." (Principles #35). This foundational tenet of Berkeley's philosophy, termed "idealism," is occasionally referred to, sometimes pejoratively, as "immaterialism" or, less frequently, as subjective idealism. In Principles #3, he famously penned, combining Latin and English, esse is percipi (to be is to be perceived), a dictum frequently, though sometimes with minor inaccuracy, attributed to him as the unadulterated Latin phrase esse est percipi. This phrase is consistently linked with Berkeley in authoritative philosophical discourse, for instance: "Berkeley holds that there are no such mind-independent things, that, in the famous phrase, esse est percipi (aut percipere)—to be is to be perceived (or to perceive)."

Berkeley posits that human knowledge comprises two fundamental components: spirits and ideas (Principles #86). Unlike ideas, spirits are imperceptible. An individual's spirit, which apprehends ideas, is understood intuitively through introspection or reflection (Principles #89). Berkeley argues that while we lack a direct "idea" of spirits, compelling evidence supports the existence of other spirits, as their operations account for the observed purposeful regularities in our experience. He states, "It is plain that we cannot know the existence of other spirits otherwise than by their operations, or the ideas by them excited in us" (Dialogues #145). This framework addresses the philosophical problem of other minds. Furthermore, the inherent order and teleology evident in our worldly experience, particularly in nature, compel belief in an immensely powerful and intelligent spirit responsible for this structure. Berkeley concludes that contemplating the characteristics of this external spirit leads to its identification with God. Consequently, a physical entity like an apple is conceptualized as a composite of ideas (e.g., shape, color, taste, physical attributes) that are generated in human spirits by the divine spirit.

Theology

As a devout Christian, Berkeley maintained that God served as the direct and immediate cause of all human experiences.

Berkeley directly addressed the inquiry into the external origin of the varied sensory data available to individuals. His objective was to demonstrate that sensations could not originate from material objects, given that what are conventionally termed "things"—and erroneously considered distinct from our sensations—are entirely constituted by sensations themselves. Therefore, an alternative external source for the boundless diversity of sensations must exist. Berkeley concluded that this source could only be God, who imparts these sensations to humanity as signs and symbols conveying the divine message.

Berkeley's argument for the existence of God is presented as follows:

"Regardless of the control I exert over my own thoughts, I observe that the ideas genuinely perceived through the senses do not exhibit a similar dependence on my volition. For instance, when I open my eyes in daylight, I lack the power to decide whether I will see or not, or to dictate which specific objects will appear before my gaze; the same applies to hearing and other senses. The ideas impressed upon them are not products of my will. Consequently, another Will or Spirit must be responsible for their production." (Berkeley. Principles #29)

As articulated by T. I. Oizerman:

Berkeley's mystical idealism, a term coined by Kant, asserted that no fundamental separation existed between humanity and God, save for materialist misinterpretations. This was predicated on the belief that nature or matter lacked an independent reality apart from consciousness. According to this doctrine, divine revelation was directly accessible to humans through the sensory world—the realm of human sensations—which was bestowed from above for interpretation, thereby enabling comprehension of God's purpose.

Berkeley contended that God is not merely a remote engineer, akin to the Newtonian conception of a distant creator whose initial design eventually results in phenomena like a tree growing in a university quadrangle. Instead, the perception of the tree constitutes an idea generated by God's mind within the human mind. The tree persists in the quadrangle even in the absence of human observers because God, as an infinite mind, perpetually perceives all things.

David Hume's philosophical contributions regarding causality and objectivity represent an expansion upon a distinct facet of Berkeley's philosophical framework. A.A. Luce, recognized as the foremost Berkeley scholar of the 20th century, consistently emphasized the enduring coherence of Berkeley's philosophy. Furthermore, Berkeley's lifelong engagement with his principal works, evidenced by the issuance of revised editions with only minor alterations, refutes any hypothesis suggesting a substantial philosophical reversal on his part.

As observed by Colin Murray Turbayne, later entries within Berkeley's unpublished private notes, specifically in the Philosophical Commentaries, reveal a tendency to recede from a dogmatic form of ontological idealism. This shift indicates an adoption of a more skeptical perspective concerning the existence of an active, universal substantial mind, such as God. Berkeley's "official doctrine," which literally asserts that "Mind is a substance," is juxtaposed with enigmatic references in his private writings to a universal "thinking substance, something unknown" (687) and the declaration that "the substance of Spirit we do not know, it not being knowable" (701). In his elucidation of the term "substance" and his portrayal of the soul as a substance in which ideas "inhere" while it "supports" them, Berkeley also stressed the necessity to "use utmost caution not to give the least handle of offense to the Church or Church-men (715)". When considering Berkeley's development of a philosophy of science and his theory of vision, these ultimate references to God as a universal and "substantial mind" appear fundamentally metaphorical, signifying a diplomatic willingness to uphold a "purely substantivalist conception of the mind," a position confirmed by his private statements.

Arguments Concerning Relativity

John Locke, an intellectual predecessor to Berkeley, asserted that objects are characterized by their primary and secondary qualities. He utilized heat as an illustrative example of a secondary quality. In an experimental scenario, if one hand is submerged in cold water and the other in warm water, and then both hands are subsequently placed into lukewarm water, one hand will register the water as cold while the other perceives it as hot. Locke deduced that since two distinct perceiving entities (the hands) apprehend the water as both hot and cold, heat cannot be an intrinsic quality of the water itself.

While Locke utilized this argument to differentiate primary from secondary qualities, Berkeley extended its application to primary qualities. For example, he asserted that size is not an inherent quality of an object, given that its perceived dimension is contingent upon the distance between the observer and the object, or the observer's own physical size. Therefore, if an object presents different sizes to various observers, then size cannot be an intrinsic attribute of the object. Berkeley similarly refuted the objectivity of shape and subsequently posed a fundamental question: if neither primary nor secondary qualities are inherent to the object, how can we claim that anything exists beyond the qualities we directly perceive?

Relativity, within this philosophical framework, posits the absence of objective, universal truth, defining a state of interdependence where the existence of one entity is solely contingent upon another. John Locke differentiated primary qualities, such as shape and size, as mind-independent, from secondary qualities, like taste and color, which he considered mind-dependent. George Berkeley, however, refuted Locke's distinction regarding primary and secondary qualities, arguing that "we cannot abstract the primary qualities (e.g shape) from secondary ones (e.g colour)". Berkeley maintained that perception is contingent upon the observer's distance from the object, asserting that "thus, we cannot conceive of mechanist material bodies which are extended but not (in themselves) colored". He further elaborated that perceptions of the same quality can be entirely contradictory due to differing positions and perspectives, meaning that even identical types of phenomena can comprise opposing qualities. Secondary qualities are crucial for the human apprehension of an object's primary qualities; for instance, an object's color enables its recognition. Specifically, while the color red is perceived in apples, strawberries, and tomatoes, their appearance would remain unknown without this color. Furthermore, the concept of the color red would not exist if red paint or any object possessing a perceived red hue were absent. This illustrates that colors cannot exist autonomously but rather represent a collection of perceived objects. Consequently, both primary and secondary qualities are mind-dependent, incapable of existing independently of our minds.

George Berkeley, a philosopher, challenged both rationalism and "classical" empiricism. As a "subjective idealist" or "empirical idealist," Berkeley posited that reality is exclusively composed of immaterial, conscious minds and their associated ideas. Consequently, he argued that all existence is contingent upon the perceiving subject, with the exception of the subject itself. He explicitly rejected the existence of abstract objects, a concept embraced by numerous other philosophers, particularly Plato. Berkeley defined an abstract object as something that "does not exist in space or time and which is therefore entirely non-physical and non-mental"; however, this assertion appears to conflict with his own relativity argument. If the principle "esse est percipi" (Latin for "to exist is to be perceived") holds true, then the objects within Berkeley's relativity argument present a dilemma regarding their existence. Berkeley contended that true reality comprises solely the perceptions of minds and the perceiving Spirit. He maintained that what individuals perceive daily constitutes merely the idea of an object's existence, rather than the direct perception of the objects themselves. Furthermore, Berkeley explored instances where material entities might not be directly perceivable by an individual, and the individual's mind might struggle to comprehend such objects. Nevertheless, he also posited the existence of an "omnipresent, eternal mind," which Berkeley identified with God and the Spirit, both characterized by omniscience and universal perception. While Berkeley asserted that God is the controlling entity of all existence, he simultaneously argued that "abstract object[s] do not exist in space or time." As Warnock elucidates, Berkeley "had recognized that he could not square with his own talk of spirits, of our minds and of God; for these are perceivers and not among objects of perception. Thus he says, rather weakly and without elucidation, that in addition to our ideas, we also have notions—we know what it means to speak of spirits and their operations."

Nevertheless, the relativity argument appears to contradict the tenets of immaterialism. Berkeley's immaterialism asserts that "esse est percipi (aut percipere)," which translates to: to be is to be perceived (or to perceive). This implies that only what is perceived or actively perceiving possesses reality, and without human or divine perception, nothing can genuinely exist. However, if Berkeley's relativity argument posits that an object's perception varies with different observational positions, then what is perceived might be considered either real or unreal, as perception itself does not encompass the complete picture, and the entirety of that picture remains unperceivable. Berkeley further contended that "when one perceives mediately, one perceives one idea by means of perceiving another." This suggests that if the initial perceptual standards differ, subsequent perceptions may also vary accordingly. In the previously mentioned example of heat perception, one hand registered the water as hot, while the other perceived it as cold, illustrating the impact of relativity. Applying the principle "to be is to be perceived" would logically imply that the water is simultaneously cold and hot, given that both perceptions are registered by different hands. Nevertheless, water cannot be both cold and hot concurrently without self-contradiction, thereby demonstrating that perception is not invariably veridical, as it can occasionally violate the law of non-contradiction. Consequently, "it would be arbitrary anthropocentrism to claim that humans have special access to the true qualities of objects." Truth, therefore, can be subjective across individuals, and human access to absolute truth is constrained by relativity. In summary, absolute truth may be unattainable due to relativity, or alternatively, the principles of "to be is to be perceived" and the relativity argument do not consistently cohere.

A New Theory of Vision

In his seminal work, Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision, Berkeley extensively critiqued the perspectives of the Optic Writers, a group seemingly encompassing Molyneux, Wallis, Malebranche, and Descartes. Across sections 1–51, Berkeley challenged classical optical scholars by asserting that: spatial depth, specifically the distance separating the perceiver from the perceived object, is inherently invisible. This implies that space is neither directly perceived nor its form logically inferred through the application of optical laws. For Berkeley, space constitutes merely a contingent expectation that visual and tactile sensations will occur in predictable sequences, which are established through habitual experience.

Berkeley posited that visual cues, including an object's perceived extension or 'confusion,' serve as indirect indicators of distance, as individuals learn to correlate these visual stimuli with tactile experiences. He illustrated this concept of indirect distance perception with an analogy: just as one infers embarrassment from observing a person's flushed countenance, distance is perceived indirectly. The observation of a red face leads to an indirect inference of embarrassment, based on the learned association between this visual cue and the emotional state.

The visibility of space constituted a pivotal inquiry within the Renaissance perspective tradition, which leveraged classical optics for developing pictorial representations of spatial depth. This topic has been a subject of scholarly discourse since the 11th-century Arab polymath and mathematician Alhazen (Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham) experimentally confirmed the visibility of space. Berkeley's theory of vision also addressed this issue, which was subsequently explored extensively in Maurice Merleau-Ponty's Phenomenology of Perception. Merleau-Ponty's work aimed to affirm the visual perception of spatial depth (la profondeur) and, in doing so, refute Berkeley's original thesis.

Beyond distance perception, Berkeley also addressed the perception of size. He is often erroneously cited as subscribing to size–distance invariance, a concept advocated by the Optic Writers, which posits that image size is geometrically scaled based on distance. This misconception may have gained prevalence due to its perpetuation by the distinguished historian and psychologist E. G. Boring. Berkeley, however, contended that the cues eliciting distance perception simultaneously elicit size perception, asserting that size is not initially perceived and subsequently used to calculate distance. His perspective on this matter is articulated in Section 53:

The inclination towards this error (beyond the propensity to interpret vision geometrically) stems from the fact that the same perceptions or ideas that indicate distance also indicate magnitude... I assert that these perceptions do not first suggest distance and then allow judgment to utilize that as a means to ascertain magnitude; rather, they possess a connection to magnitude that is as intimate and immediate as their connection to distance, suggesting magnitude independently of distance, just as they suggest distance independently of magnitude.

Berkeley asserted that his visual theories received "vindication" from a 1728 report detailing the restoration of sight in a 13-year-old boy, Daniel Dolins, who underwent surgery for congenital cataracts performed by surgeon William Cheselden. Dolins' name was first publicly disclosed in 2021. Berkeley maintained connections with the Dolins family and shared numerous social ties with Cheselden, including the poet Alexander Pope and Princess Caroline, to whom Cheselden's patient was introduced. The report itself contained a misspelling of Cheselden's name, employed language characteristic of Berkeley, and potentially was ghost-written by Berkeley himself. Regrettably, Dolins never achieved sufficient vision for reading, and no evidence indicates that the surgical intervention enhanced his sight at any point before his demise at age 30.

Philosophy of Physics

"Berkeley's corpus demonstrates a profound engagement with natural philosophy, spanning from his initial works (Arithmetica, 1707) to his final publication (Siris, 1744). Furthermore, a substantial portion of his philosophical framework is fundamentally influenced by his interaction with contemporary scientific thought." The depth of this interest is evident in numerous entries within Berkeley's Philosophical Commentaries (1707–1708), such as "Mem. to Examine & accurately discuss the scholium of the 8th Definition of Mr Newton's Principia." (#316).

Berkeley contended that Newtonian forces and gravity represented "occult qualities" that lacked clear definition. He asserted that individuals who postulated "something unknown in a body of which they have no idea and which they call the principle of motion" were merely acknowledging the unknown nature of motion's principle. Consequently, he argued that those who "affirm that active force, action, and the principle of motion are really in bodies" were endorsing a viewpoint unsupported by empirical evidence. From Berkeley's perspective, forces and gravity were absent from the observable phenomenal world. Furthermore, if these concepts were categorized as "soul" or "incorporeal thing," they would "not properly belong to physics." Berkeley therefore concluded that forces transcended empirical observation and could not be considered a legitimate subject of scientific inquiry. He subsequently introduced his theory of signs to elucidate motion and matter without invoking the "occult qualities" of force and gravity.

Berkeley's Razor

Berkeley's razor, a principle of reasoning, was introduced by philosopher Karl Popper during his analysis of Berkeley's seminal scientific treatise, De Motu. Popper regarded Berkeley's razor as analogous to Occam's razor but possessing greater potency. It embodies an extreme empiricist perspective on scientific observation, positing that the scientific method offers no genuine comprehension of the world's intrinsic nature. Instead, the scientific method yields a range of partial explanations concerning observable regularities, which are derived through experimentation. According to Berkeley, the true nature of the world can only be apprehended via rigorous metaphysical speculation and reasoning. Popper encapsulated Berkeley's razor as follows:

A general practical outcome—which I propose to designate "Berkeley's razor"—stemming from [Berkeley's] examination of physics enables us a priori to exclude all essentialist explanations from the domain of physical science. Should these explanations possess mathematical and predictive substance, they may be accepted qua mathematical hypotheses, provided their essentialist interpretation is discarded. Otherwise, they are to be entirely dismissed. This razor surpasses Ockham's in its incisiveness: all entities are precluded, with the sole exception of those that are perceived.

In a separate essay within the same volume, titled "Three Views Concerning Human Knowledge," Popper posits that Berkeley should be classified as an instrumentalist philosopher, alongside figures such as Robert Bellarmine, Pierre Duhem, and Ernst Mach. Under this framework, scientific theories are regarded as functional fictions or practical constructs designed to elucidate phenomena, rather than assertions of absolute truth. Popper delineates instrumentalism in opposition to both the aforementioned essentialism and his personal philosophy of "critical rationalism."

Philosophy of Mathematics

Beyond his philosophical contributions, Berkeley exerted significant, albeit indirect, influence on the evolution of mathematics. "Berkeley was concerned with mathematics and its philosophical interpretation from the earliest stages of his intellectual life." His "Philosophical Commentaries" (1707–1708) provide evidence of his profound interest in mathematical concepts:

Axiom. No reasoning about things whereof we have no idea. Therefore no reasoning about Infinitesimals. (#354)

Remove the signs from Arithmetic & Algebra, and what, pray tell, remains? (#767)

These are purely verbal sciences, entirely devoid of utility except for practical application within human societies. They offer no speculative knowledge and involve no comparison of ideas. (#768)

Berkeley authored two mathematical treatises in 1707. Subsequently, in 1734, he released The Analyst, a critical examination of calculus subtitled A DISCOURSE Addressed to an Infidel Mathematician. Florian Cajori characterized this work as "the most spectacular event of the century in the history of British mathematics." Nevertheless, contemporary scholarship indicates that Berkeley may have misinterpreted Leibnizian calculus. The mathematician to whom the discourse was addressed is presumed to be either Edmond Halley or Isaac Newton; in Newton's case, the address would have been posthumous, given his death in 1727. The Analyst constituted a direct challenge to the foundational principles of calculus, specifically targeting the concepts of fluxion and infinitesimal change, which were central to Newton's and Leibniz's development of the subject. Within this critique, Berkeley famously coined the expression "ghosts of departed quantities," a phrase well-known to calculus students. Ian Stewart's publication, From Here to Infinity, effectively summarizes the essence of Berkeley's critique.

Berkeley positioned his critique of calculus within a larger intellectual endeavor to counter the theological ramifications of Newtonian mechanics. This effort served as a defense of traditional Christianity against deism, a philosophical stance that often posits a distant relationship between God and humanity. He specifically noted that both Newtonian and Leibnizian calculus inconsistently treated infinitesimals, sometimes as positive, non-zero values and at other times as explicitly zero. A central argument in Berkeley's The Analyst was that Newton's calculus, along with the laws of motion derived from it, lacked robust theoretical underpinnings. He asserted:

In every other Science Men prove their Conclusions by their Principles, and not their Principles by the Conclusions. But if in yours you should allow your selves this unnatural way of proceeding, the Consequence would be that you must take up with Induction, and bid adieu to Demonstration. And if you submit to this, your Authority will no longer lead the way in Points of Reason and Science.

Berkeley did not dispute the practical efficacy of calculus in yielding accurate real-world outcomes; straightforward physics experiments could corroborate the claims of Newton's methodology. He posited that while "The cause of Fluxions cannot be defended by reason," its results were verifiable through empirical observation, which Berkeley considered his preferred epistemological approach. Nevertheless, Berkeley identified a paradox in the notion that "Mathematicians should deduce true Propositions from false Principles, be right in Conclusion, and yet err in the Premises." In The Analyst, he sought to demonstrate "how Error may bring forth Truth, though it cannot bring forth Science." Consequently, Newton's scientific framework, according to Berkeley, lacked the capacity to justify its conclusions purely on scientific grounds, rendering the mechanical, deistic model of the universe rationally indefensible.

The challenges articulated by Berkeley persisted in the work of Cauchy, whose calculus methodology integrated both infinitesimals and the concept of a limit. These issues were ultimately circumvented by Weierstrass through his (ε, δ) approach, which entirely dispensed with infinitesimals. More recently, Abraham Robinson re-established the rigorous application of infinitesimal methods in his 1966 publication, Non-standard analysis.

Moral Philosophy

Berkeley's primary contribution to moral and political philosophy is widely regarded as the 1712 treatise, A Discourse on Passive Obedience.

Within A Discourse on Passive Obedience, Berkeley advocates for the principle that individuals possess "a moral duty to observe the negative precepts (prohibitions) of the law, including the duty not to resist the execution of punishment." Nevertheless, Berkeley introduces qualifications to this broad moral assertion, stipulating that adherence is not required for the directives of "usurpers or even madmen." Furthermore, he suggests that individuals may legitimately obey multiple supreme authorities if conflicting claims to ultimate power exist.

Berkeley substantiates this argument through a deductive proof derived from natural laws. Initially, he posits that given God's inherent goodness, the ultimate purpose of divine commands to humanity must similarly be benevolent, extending its benefits not merely to individuals but to the entirety of the human population. Since adherence to these commands, or laws, would foster the overall well-being of humanity, their discovery is attainable through sound reasoning. For instance, the imperative never to oppose supreme authority can be rationally deduced, as this principle represents "the only thing that stands between us and total disorder." Consequently, these principles are designated as natural laws, given their divine origin from God, the very creator of nature. Such natural laws encompass obligations such as refraining from resisting supreme power, avoiding perjury, and abstaining from committing malevolent acts even with the intention of achieving positive outcomes.

Berkeley's doctrine of Passive Obedience can be interpreted as a form of 'Theological Utilitarianism,' given its assertion that individuals are obligated to adhere to a moral framework designed to advance the welfare of humanity. Nevertheless, conventional utilitarianism diverges significantly by positing that utility constitutes "the one and only ground of obligation." Specifically, utilitarianism evaluates the moral permissibility of individual actions within particular contexts, whereas Berkeley's doctrine addresses the imperative to observe moral rules universally, irrespective of specific circumstances. While act utilitarianism, for instance, might rationalize a morally questionable action based on situational specifics, Berkeley's Passive Obedience doctrine maintains that deviating from a moral rule is never justifiable, even if such a transgression appears to lead to optimal outcomes. Berkeley contends that despite potentially negative consequences of an action in an isolated instance, the overarching inclinations of that action ultimately contribute to human welfare.

Additional significant sources for Berkeley's ethical perspectives include Alciphron (1732), particularly dialogues I–III, and the Discourse to Magistrates (1738). Passive Obedience is particularly noteworthy for presenting one of the earliest articulations of rule utilitarianism.

Immaterialism

George Berkeley's theory asserting the non-existence of matter originates from the conviction that "sensible things are those only which are immediately perceived by sense." In his work, Principles of Human Knowledge, Berkeley states that "the ideas of sense are stronger, livelier, and clearer than those of the imagination; and they are also steady, orderly and coherent." This implies that the objects of our perception possess genuine reality, distinguishing them from mere figments of imagination or dreams.

Berkeley's philosophical framework posits that all knowledge originates from perception, and what is perceived constitutes ideas rather than independent "things in themselves." Since a "thing in itself" would necessarily exist beyond human experience, the world, according to Berkeley, is composed solely of ideas and the minds that perceive them. Consequently, existence is contingent upon either perceiving or being perceived. This perspective underscores consciousness as fundamental to Berkeley's system, given its inherent capacity for perception. As articulated, "'To be,' when applied to an object, signifies to be perceived, or 'esse est percipi'; conversely, 'to be,' when applied to a subject, denotes the act of perceiving, or 'percipere'." Building upon this foundation, Berkeley critically challenges the "strangely prevailing opinion among men that houses, mountains, rivers, and indeed all sensible objects possess a natural or real existence distinct from their being perceived." He deems this notion inconsistent, arguing that an object existing independently of perception would paradoxically require both sensible qualities (thereby rendering it an idea) and an insensible reality, a duality Berkeley considers contradictory. He attributes this error to the belief that perceptions can imply or infer the existence of a material object, a concept he labels abstract ideas. Berkeley refutes this by asserting that individuals cannot conceptualize an object without simultaneously imagining its sensory attributes. In his seminal work, Principles of Human Knowledge, he contends that just as sensory experience of matter is mediated by actual sensation, the conception of matter (or, more precisely, ideas of matter) is similarly mediated by the idea of sensation itself. This implies that all human conceptualizations regarding matter are fundamentally ideas about matter. Therefore, if matter were to exist, it would manifest as collections of ideas, accessible through the senses and interpreted by the mind. However, if matter is merely a compilation of ideas, Berkeley concludes that material substance, as understood by most contemporary philosophers, does not exist. Illustratively, any visualized object must possess some color, regardless of its shade; it cannot be a form devoid of color if it is to be apprehended visually.

Berkeley's philosophical propositions generated considerable debate, primarily because his arguments directly challenged the Cartesian philosophy, which had been further developed by Locke. Consequently, Berkeley's distinct brand of empiricism faced rejection from numerous eighteenth-century philosophers. Locke's philosophy, for instance, posited that "the world causes the perceptual ideas we have of it by the way it interacts with our senses." This directly conflicts with Berkeley's framework, as Locke's view not only implies the existence of physical causes within the world but also, more fundamentally, suggests a physical reality extending beyond our ideas. In contrast, Berkeley's philosophy asserts that the sole existing causes are those originating from the exercise of the will.

Berkeley's theoretical framework is fundamentally predicated upon his distinctive form of empiricism, which, in turn, is deeply rooted in sensory experience. His empiricism is characterized by five core tenets: that all meaningful linguistic expressions denote ideas; that all apprehension of objects pertains to ideas; that ideas originate either externally or internally; that external ideas are received through the senses and are termed sensations, representing actual entities; and that internal ideas arise from mental operations and are designated as thoughts. Berkeley further delineated ideas, categorizing them as those "are imprinted on the senses," those "perceived by attending to the passions and operations of the mind," or those "are formed by help of memory and imagination." A common philosophical challenge to his theory posits whether an unperceived room ceases to exist upon an individual's departure. Berkeley countered this by asserting that the room continues to be perceived by an omniscient divine consciousness. This crucial aspect renders Berkeley's argument contingent upon the existence of an omniscient, omnipresent deity. Indeed, this divine perception forms the sole foundation for his argument, which "depend[s] for our knowledge of the world, and of the existence of other minds, upon a God that would never deceive us." Berkeley also foresaw and addressed a second objection in his work, Principles of Human Knowledge. He posited that materialists might adopt a representational stance, arguing that while senses apprehend only ideas, these ideas bear a resemblance to, and are thus comparable with, actual, independently existing objects. Consequently, it was argued, the mind could infer the nature of matter itself from these sensory ideas, despite matter's inherent imperceptibility. Berkeley's counter-argument to this position is encapsulated in his assertion that "an idea can be like nothing but an idea; a colour or figure can be like nothing but another colour or figure." He meticulously differentiated between an idea, which is inherently mind-dependent, and a material substance, which is conceived as mind-independent and distinct from an idea. Given their fundamental dissimilarity, such entities are incomparable, akin to the impossibility of comparing the color red to an invisible entity, or the sound of music to silence, beyond the mere fact of their respective existence or non-existence. This concept is termed the likeness principle, asserting that an idea can only bear resemblance to, and thus be compared with, another idea.

Berkeley endeavored to elucidate the process by which ideas coalesce into distinct objects of knowledge.

As Berkeley articulated: "

It is evident to anyone who takes a survey of the objects of human knowledge, that they are either ideas actually imprinted on the senses; or else such as are perceived by attending to the passions and operations of the mind; or lastly ideas formed by help of memory and imagination—either compounding, dividing, or barely representing those originally perceived in the aforesaid ways" (emphasis added).

Berkeley further sought to substantiate the existence of God through his immaterialist philosophical framework.

Influence

Berkeley's seminal work, Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, was released three years prior to Arthur Collier's Clavis Universalis, a text that presented remarkably similar philosophical assertions. Despite these parallels, historical analysis indicates no discernible influence or direct communication between the two authors.

The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer lauded Berkeley, stating: "Berkeley was, therefore, the first to treat the subjective starting-point really seriously and to demonstrate irrefutably its absolute necessity. He is the father of idealism...".

Berkeley is recognized as a foundational figure in British empiricism, frequently positioned within a canonical lineage of "British Empiricists" that progresses from Locke, through Berkeley, to Hume.

Berkeley's philosophical contributions significantly impacted numerous modern philosophers, notably David Hume. Thomas Reid, despite an initial period of admiration for Berkeley's philosophical system, later acknowledged having developed a substantial critique of Berkeleianism. Alfred North Whitehead observed that Berkeley's "thought made possible the work of Hume and thus Kant." Furthermore, certain scholars identify conceptual parallels between Berkeley's philosophy and that of Edmund Husserl.

During Berkeley's Johnson successfully persuaded Berkeley to establish a scholarship program at Yale and to bequeath a substantial collection of books, along with his plantation, to the institution upon his return to England. This contribution represented one of Yale's most significant donations, effectively doubling its library resources, enhancing its financial stability, and introducing Anglican religious concepts and English cultural influences into New England. Furthermore, Johnson integrated elements of Berkeley's philosophy to construct the framework for his own philosophical school, American Practical Idealism. Given that approximately half of American college graduates between 1743 and 1776 were educated in Johnson's philosophy, and more than half of the signatories of the Declaration of Independence had connections to it, Berkeley's intellectual contributions are considered an indirect cornerstone of the American intellectual tradition.

Beyond the United States, Berkeley's philosophical concepts garnered relatively limited influence during his lifetime. However, scholarly engagement with his doctrines intensified from the 1870s, notably following the publication of The Works of George Berkeley by Alexander Campbell Fraser, recognized as the preeminent Berkeley scholar of the nineteenth century. Significant impetus for rigorous study of Berkeley's philosophy was provided by A. A. Luce and Thomas Edmund Jessop, acclaimed as two of the twentieth century's leading Berkeley scholars, whose efforts elevated Berkeley scholarship to a distinct field within historico-philosophical inquiry. Additionally, philosopher Colin Murray Turbayne extensively explored Berkeley's linguistic methodology as a paradigm for understanding visual, physiological, natural, and metaphysical interconnections.

The volume of Berkeley scholarship within the historical philosophy literature is demonstrably increasing. This trend is evident from comprehensive bibliographies dedicated to George Berkeley. Between 1709 and 1932, approximately 300 works concerning Berkeley were published, averaging 1.5 publications annually. Subsequently, from 1932 to 1979, over one thousand works appeared, representing an average of 20 publications per year. Since that period, the annual publication rate has risen to 30. In 1977, Ireland initiated the publication of Berkeley Studies, a specialized journal focusing on Berkeley's life and intellectual contributions. Furthermore, in 1988, Australian philosopher Colin Murray Turbayne founded the International Berkeley Essay Prize Competition at the University of Rochester, aiming to foster advanced scholarship and research pertaining to Berkeley's oeuvre.

Beyond his philosophical contributions, Berkeley significantly impacted modern psychology through his engagement with John Locke's theory of association, particularly its application in elucidating human knowledge acquisition within the physical realm. He further employed this theory to account for perception, positing that all qualities are, in Locke's terminology, "secondary qualities," thereby locating perception exclusively within the perceiver rather than the object itself. Both of these concepts remain pertinent subjects of study in contemporary psychology.

Literary References

Lord Byron's Don Juan includes a reference to immaterialism within its Eleventh Canto:

When Bishop Berkeley said 'there was no matter,'
And proved it—'t was no matter what he said:
They say his system 't is in vain to batter,
Too subtle for the airiest human head;
And yet who can believe it? I would shatter
Gladly all matters down to stone or lead,
Or adamant, to find the world a spirit,
And wear my head, denying that I wear it.

Herman Melville humorously alludes to Berkeley in Chapter 20 of Mardi (1849), while describing a character's conviction of being aboard a ghost ship:

And here be it said, that for all his superstitious misgivings about the brigantine; his imputing to her something equivalent to a purely phantom-like nature, honest Jarl was nevertheless exceedingly downright and practical in all hints and proceedings concerning her. Wherein, he resembled my Right Reverend friend, Bishop Berkeley–truly, one of your lords spiritual—who, metaphysically speaking, holding all objects to be mere optical delusions, was, notwithstanding, extremely matter-of-fact in all matters touching matter itself. Besides being pervious to the points of pins, and possessing a palate capable of appreciating plum-puddings:—which sentence reads off like a pattering of hailstones.

James Joyce incorporates references to Berkeley's philosophy in the third episode of Ulysses (1922):

A contemplative passage, reflecting on perception and the nature of reality, evokes themes central to Berkeley's philosophy:

Who watches me here? Who ever anywhere will read these written words? Signs on a white field. Somewhere to someone in your flutiest voice. The good bishop of Cloyne took the veil of the temple out of his shovel hat: veil of space with coloured emblems hatched on its field. Hold hard. Coloured on a flat: yes, that's right. Flat I see, then think distance, near, far, flat I see, east, back. Ah, see now!

In his commentary on a review of Ada or Ardor, author Vladimir Nabokov referenced Berkeley's philosophical concepts as foundational to his novel:

And finally I owe no debt whatsoever (as Mr. Leonard seems to think) to the famous Argentine essayist and his rather confused compilation "A New Refutation of Time." Mr. Leonard would have lost less of it had he gone straight to Berkeley and Bergson. (Strong Opinions, pp. 2892–90)

James Boswell, within the 1763 section of his biographical work Life of Samuel Johnson, documented Johnson's perspective on a particular facet of Berkeley's philosophy:

After we came out of the church, we stood talking for some time together of Bishop Berkeley's ingenious sophistry to prove the non-existence of matter, and that every thing in the universe is merely ideal. I observed, that though we are satisfied his doctrine is untrue, it is impossible to refute it. I shall never forget the alacrity with which Johnson answered, striking his foot with mighty force against a large stone, till he rebounded from it,– "I refute it thus."

Commemoration

Both the University of California, Berkeley, and the city of Berkeley, California, derive their names from him, notwithstanding the evolution of pronunciation to conform with American English: ( BURK-lee). Frederick H. Billings, a trustee of the institution then known as the College of California, proposed the naming in 1866. Billings drew inspiration from Berkeley's Verses on the Prospect of Planting Arts and Learning in America, specifically its concluding stanza: "Westward the course of empire takes its way; the first four Acts already past, a fifth shall close the Drama with the day; time's noblest offspring is the last".

The Town of Berkley, Massachusetts, presently the least populous municipality in Bristol County, was established on April 18, 1735, and named in honor of George Berkeley.

Furthermore, a residential college and an Episcopal seminary at Yale University are named after Berkeley.

"Bishop Berkeley's Gold Medals," two annual awards established by Berkeley in 1752 at Trinity College Dublin, were conferred upon candidates demonstrating exceptional merit in a specialized Greek examination. These awards, however, have not been issued since 2011. As of 2023, other aspects of Berkeley's legacy at Trinity College are undergoing reevaluation due to his historical support for slavery. For instance, the library named after him in 1978 was formally "de-named" in April 2023 and subsequently renamed in October 2024 in honor of Irish poet Eavan Boland. Conversely, a stained-glass window commemorating him will be retained, but integrated into a "retain-and-explain approach" designed to provide additional contextualization for his legacy.

An Ulster History Circle blue plaque, commemorating Berkeley, is situated on Bishop Street Within, in the city of Derry.

Berkeley's former farmhouse in Middletown, Rhode Island, is maintained as the Whitehall Museum House, also recognized as Berkeley House, and was inducted into the National Register of Historic Places in 1970. St. Columba's Chapel, situated within the same municipality, was previously designated "The Berkeley Memorial Chapel," an appellation that persists as part of the parish's official name, "St. Columba's, the Berkeley Memorial Chapel."

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About George Berkeley

A short guide to George Berkeley's life, works, ideas and place in the history of philosophy.

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