Expressionism

Expressionism is a modernist artistic movement, primarily manifesting in poetry and painting, which emerged in Northern Europe at the dawn of the 20th century. Characteristically, it portrays the world exclusively through a subjective lens, employing radical distortion to elicit specific emotional responses or conceptual insights. Proponents of Expressionism aimed to convey the profound significance of emotional experience, prioritizing it over the depiction of objective physical reality.

Expressionism developed as an avant-garde artistic movement prior to the First World War. It maintained its prominence throughout the Weimar Republic, especially within Berlin. Its influence permeated diverse artistic disciplines, encompassing architecture, painting, literature, theatre, dance, film, and music. Paris served as a nexus for a collective of Expressionist artists, many of whom were of Jewish heritage, collectively known as the School of Paris. Post-World War II, figurative expressionism exerted a global influence on artists and artistic trends.

The term itself often connotes a sense of angst. Historically, certain earlier painters, including Matthias Grünewald and El Greco, have occasionally been labeled expressionist, although the designation primarily pertains to 20th-century creations. The Expressionist movement's prioritization of individual and subjective viewpoints is frequently interpreted as a direct response to positivism and prevailing artistic movements like Naturalism and Impressionism.

Etymology and History

Although the term "expressionist" appeared in its modern usage as early as 1850, its genesis is occasionally attributed to paintings displayed in Paris in 1901 by the lesser-known artist Julien-Auguste Hervé, who titled them Expressionismes. Conversely, another perspective posits that the Czech art historian Antonin Matějček coined the term in 1910, defining it as the antithesis of Impressionism: "An Expressionist wishes, above all, to express himself... (an Expressionist rejects) immediate perception and builds on more complex psychic structures... Impressions and mental images that pass through ... people's soul as through a filter which rids them of all substantial accretions to produce their clear essence [...and] are assimilated and condensed into more general forms, into types, which he transcribes through simple short-hand formulae and symbols."

Key precursors to the Expressionist movement included the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900), notably his philosophical novel Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883–1892); the later plays of the Swedish dramatist August Strindberg (1849–1912), among which were the trilogy To Damascus (1898–1901), A Dream Play (1902), The Ghost Sonata (1907); Frank Wedekind (1864–1918), particularly the "Lulu" plays Erdgeist (Earth Spirit) (1895) and Die Büchse der Pandora (Pandora's Box) (1904); American poet Walt Whitman's work Leaves of Grass (1855–1891); Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–1881); Norwegian painter Edvard Munch (1863–1944); Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890); Belgian painter James Ensor (1860–1949); and the pioneering Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856–1939).

In 1905, a quartet of German artists, spearheaded by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, established Die Brücke (The Bridge) in Dresden. This collective is widely considered the foundational entity for the German Expressionist movement, despite not explicitly employing the term 'Expressionism' themselves. Subsequently, in 1911, a similarly oriented cohort of young artists constituted Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) in Munich. Their designation derived from Wassily Kandinsky's 1903 painting, Der Blaue Reiter. Notable members included Kandinsky, Franz Marc, Paul Klee, and August Macke. Nevertheless, the term 'Expressionism' did not become firmly entrenched until 1913. While primarily a German artistic movement, and most prominent in painting, poetry, and theatre between 1910 and 1930, the majority of its precursors were not German. Moreover, Expressionism encompassed writers of prose fiction and non-German-speaking authors; and although the movement experienced a decline in Germany with Adolf Hitler's ascent in the 1930s, subsequent Expressionist works continued to emerge.

Defining Expressionism presents a significant challenge, partly due to its extensive overlap with other prominent modernist movements, including Futurism, Vorticism, Cubism, Surrealism, and Dadaism. Richard Murphy further notes the difficulty of an encompassing definition, observing that influential expressionists like Kafka, Gottfried Benn, and Döblin were concurrently outspoken "anti-expressionists."

Nevertheless, Expressionism emerged primarily in Germany during the early twentieth century as a response to the dehumanizing impacts of industrialization and urban expansion. A key characteristic distinguishing Expressionism as an avant-garde movement, and marking its divergence from established traditions and cultural institutions, was its engagement with realism and prevailing representational conventions. Specifically, Expressionists explicitly repudiated the tenets of realism.

The term "Expressionism" denotes an artistic style where the creator endeavors to portray not objective reality, but rather the subjective emotions and internal reactions evoked by objects and events. While all artists inherently express, numerous European artworks from the 15th century onwards distinctly emphasize intense emotion. Such art frequently arises during periods of significant social unrest and conflict, exemplified by the Protestant Reformation, the German Peasants' War, and the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Netherlands. During these eras, extreme violence, often targeting civilians, was depicted in propagandistic popular prints. Although these prints frequently lacked aesthetic sophistication, they possessed a potent ability to elicit profound emotional responses from viewers.

Critics, including art historian Michel Ragon and German philosopher Walter Benjamin, have drawn parallels between Expressionism and Baroque art. However, Alberto Arbasino distinguishes the two, stating that "Expressionism doesn't shun the violently unpleasant effect, while Baroque does. Expressionism throws some terrific 'fuck yous', Baroque doesn't. Baroque is well-mannered."

Prominent Expressionist Artists

Key visual artists associated with this style in the early 20th century include:

• Argentina: Xul Solar
• Armenia: Martiros Saryan
• Australia: Sidney Nolan, Charles Blackman, John Perceval, Albert Tucker, and Joy Hester. Wolfgang Degenhardt, a Bremen-born artist from the German Expressionist "school," also became notable in Australia. After a career as a commercial artist in Bremen, he immigrated to Australia in 1954 and gained recognition in the Hunter Valley region.
• Austria: Richard Gerstl, Egon Schiele, Oskar Kokoschka, Josef Gassler, and Alfred Kubin
• Belgium: Marcel Caron, Anto Carte, and Auguste Mambour. Notable Flemish Expressionists include Constant Permeke, Gustave De Smet, Frits Van den Berghe, James Ensor, Albert Servaes, Floris Jespers, Gustave Van de Woestijne, and Tony Mafia.
• Brazil: Anita Malfatti, Cândido Portinari, Di Cavalcanti, Iberê Camargo, and Lasar Segall
• Denmark: Einer Johansen, Jens Søndergaard, Oluf Høst
• Estonia: Konrad Mägi, Eduard Wiiralt, Kuno Veeber
• Finland: Tyko Sallinen, Alvar Cawén, and Wäinö Aaltonen
• France: Frédéric Fiebig, Georges Rouault, Alexandre Frenel, Georges Gimel, Gen Paul, Marie-Thérèse Auffray, Jacques Démoulin, and Bernard Buffet
• Germany: Ernst Barlach, Max Beckmann, Fritz Bleyl, Heinrich Campendonk, Otto Dix, Conrad Felixmüller, George Grosz, Erich Heckel, Carl Hofer, Max Kaus, Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Käthe Kollwitz, Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Elfriede Lohse-Wächtler, August Macke, Franz Marc, Ludwig Meidner, Paula Modersohn-Becker, Otto Mueller, Gabriele Münter, Rolf Nesch, Emil Nolde, Max Pechstein, Christian Rohlfs, Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, Georg Tappert, and Wolfgang Wolff
• Greece: George Bouzianis
• Hungary: Tivadar Kosztka Csontváry
• Iceland: Einar Hákonarson
• Ireland: Jack B. Yeats
• Indonesia: Affandi
• Israel: Isaac Frenkel Frenel
• Italy: Amedeo Modigliani, Emilio Giuseppe Dossena
• Japan: Kōshirō Onchi
• Latvia: Jānis Tīdemanis
• Lebanon: Rafic Charaf
• Mexico: Mathias Goeritz (a German émigré to Mexico), Rufino Tamayo
• Netherlands: Willem Hofhuizen, Herman Kruyder, Jan Sluyters, Vincent van Gogh, Jan Wiegers, and Hendrik Werkman
• Norway: Edvard Munch, Kai Fjell
• Poland: Henryk Gotlib
• Portugal: Mário Eloy, Amadeo de Souza Cardoso
• Notable Russian artists associated with Expressionism include Wassily Kandinsky, Marc Chagall, Chaïm Soutine, Alexej von Jawlensky, Natalia Goncharova, Mstislav Dobuzhinsky, and Marianne von Werefkin, the latter of whom was Russian-born but primarily active in Germany and Switzerland.
• From Romania, Horia Bernea is recognized.
• Nadežda Petrović represents Serbia.
• South African Expressionists include Maggie Laubser and Irma Stern.
• In Spain, key figures are Ignacio Zuloaga, José Gutiérrez Solana, and Julio Romero de Torres.
• Swedish artists associated with the movement are Leander Engström, Isaac Grünewald, and Axel Törneman.
• Switzerland contributed Carl Eugen Keel, Cuno Amiet, and Paul Klee.
• Ukrainian artists include Alexis Gritchenko, who was Ukraine-born but predominantly active in France, and Vadim Meller.
• Prominent British Expressionists feature Francis Bacon, Frank Auerbach, Leon Kossoff, Lucian Freud, Patrick Heron, John Hoyland, Howard Hodgkin, and John Walker.
• The United States saw contributions from numerous artists, including Ivan Albright, David Aronson, Milton Avery, Leonard Baskin, George Biddle, Hyman Bloom, Peter Blume, Charles Burchfield, David Burliuk, Stuart Davis, Lyonel Feininger, Wilhelmina Weber Furlong, Elaine de Kooning, Willem de Kooning, Beauford Delaney, Arthur G. Dove, Norris Embry, Philip Evergood, Kahlil Gibran, William Gropper, Philip Guston, Marsden Hartley, Albert Kotin, Yasuo Kuniyoshi, Rico Lebrun, Jack Levine, Alfred Henry Maurer, Robert Motherwell, Alice Neel, Abraham Rattner, Esther Rolick, Ben Shahn, Harry Shoulberg, Joseph Stella, Harry Sternberg, Henry Ossawa Tanner, Dorothea Tanning, Steffen Thomas, Wilhelmina Weber, Max Weber, Hale Woodruff, and Karl Zerbe.
• From Uruguay, Rafael Barradas is noted.

Groups of Painters

In Germany and Austria

Expressionism primarily emerged in Germany and Austria, giving rise to significant groups of painters such as Der Blaue Reiter and Die Brücke. Der Blaue Reiter, translated as 'The Blue Rider' and named after a painting, was centered in Munich. Die Brücke, meaning 'The Bridge,' originated in Dresden, though some of its members later relocated to Berlin. Die Brücke maintained its activity for a longer duration compared to Der Blaue Reiter, which existed as a collective for only one year in 1912. Expressionist artists drew inspiration from various sources, including the works of Edvard Munch, Vincent van Gogh, and African art. They were also cognizant of the Fauvist movement in Paris, which influenced Expressionism's inclination towards arbitrary color palettes and dissonant compositions. In contrast to French Impressionism, which prioritized the objective depiction of visual appearances, Expressionist artists aimed to convey emotions and subjective interpretations. They believed that the reproduction of an aesthetically pleasing impression of the subject matter was secondary to representing intense emotional reactions through potent colors and dynamic compositions. Kandinsky, a principal artist of Der Blaue Reiter, posited that viewers could discern moods and feelings in paintings through the use of fundamental colors and shapes, a concept that propelled his artistic journey toward greater abstraction.

The School of Paris

In Paris, a collective of artists, designated the École de Paris (School of Paris) by André Warnod, were also recognized for their Expressionist contributions. This artistic tendency was particularly pronounced among foreign-born Jewish painters within the School of Paris, including figures such as Chaim Soutine, Marc Chagall, Yitzhak Frenkel, and Abraham Mintchine. Frenkel characterized the Expressionism of these artists as both restless and emotional. Primarily based in the Montparnasse district of Paris, these artists frequently depicted human subjects and the broader human condition, conveying emotion primarily through facial expressions. Other artists within this group prioritized the expression of mood over adherence to formal structural conventions. The works of Jewish Expressionists were often described as dramatic and tragic, potentially reflecting the historical context of Jewish suffering stemming from persecution and pogroms.

In the United States

The tenets of German Expressionism significantly influenced the American artist Marsden Hartley, who encountered Kandinsky in Germany during 1913. Katherine Sophie Dreier and Marcel Duchamp are recognized as early proponents of "modern art" in New York, notably through their co-founding of the Société Anonyme in 1920. Their foundational efforts were subsequently advanced in 1929 by William Henry Fox, then director of the Brooklyn Museum, who also championed the promotion of modern, and specifically Expressionist, art. Initially, however, Expressionist art from Germany encountered considerable skepticism in the United States. A pivotal shift occurred only after the 1937 Munich exhibition "Entartete Kunst" (Degenerate Art), leading American museums to increasingly acquire and exhibit Expressionist works. This acquisition strategy primarily aimed to present these pieces as manifestations of a resilient culture opposing an authoritarian, freedom-averse regime. By late 1939, coinciding with the onset of World War II, New York City became a refuge for numerous European artists. Post-war, Expressionism continued to impact many emerging American artists. Norris Embry (1921–1981), for instance, studied under Oskar Kokoschka in 1947 and subsequently dedicated 43 years to producing a substantial body of work within the Expressionist tradition, earning him the designation "the first American German Expressionist." Furthermore, other American artists of the late 20th and early 21st centuries have cultivated distinctive styles that align with Expressionist principles.

Following World War II, figurative expressionism exerted influence on artists and artistic movements globally. Within the United States, American Expressionism and American Figurative Expressionism, particularly Boston Expressionism, constituted an integral component of American modernism during the mid-20th century. Thomas B. Hess observed that "the ‘New figurative painting’ which some have been expecting as a reaction against Abstract Expressionism was implicit in it at the start, and is one of its most lineal continuities."

• Prominent figurative Boston Expressionists included Karl Zerbe, Hyman Bloom, Jack Levine, and David Aronson. These Boston Expressionists maintained their artistic practice after World War II, despite facing marginalization due to the rise of abstract expressionism, which was predominantly centered in New York City. The movement continues into its third generation.
• New York Figurative Expressionism of the 1950s encompassed a group of New York-based figurative artists such as Robert Beauchamp, Elaine de Kooning, Robert Goodnough, Grace Hartigan, Lester Johnson, Alex Katz, George McNeil , Jan Muller, Fairfield Porter, Gregorio Prestopino, Larry Rivers, and Bob Thompson.
• Lyrical Abstraction and Tachisme, European movements of the 1940s and 1950s, were exemplified by artists including Georges Mathieu, Hans Hartung, and Nicolas de Staël.
• The Bay Area Figurative Movement was characterized by early figurative expressionists from the San Francisco region, including Elmer Bischoff, Richard Diebenkorn, and David Park. Active from 1950 to 1965, the movement later welcomed artists such as Theophilus Brown, Paul Wonner, Hassel Smith, Nathan Oliveira, Jay DeFeo, Joan Brown, Manuel Neri, Frank Lobdell, and Roland Peterson.
• Abstract Expressionism of the 1950s featured American artists like Louise Bourgeois, Hans Burkhardt, Mary Callery, Nicolas Carone, Willem de Kooning, Jackson Pollock, and Philip Guston, among others who also engaged with figurative expressionism.
• Sōsaku-hanga (創作版画, "creative prints") emerged as an expressionist woodblock print movement in early 20th-century Japan. This movement was notably defined by the works of Kanae Yamamoto , Kōshirō Onchi, and numerous other artists.
• Lyrical Abstraction in the United States and Canada commenced in the late 1960s and extended through the 1970s. This movement was characterized by the artistic contributions of Dan Christensen, Peter Young, Ronnie Landfield, Ronald Davis, Larry Poons, Walter Darby Bannard, Charles Arnoldi, Pat Lipsky, and many others.
• Neo-expressionism constituted an international revival style that originated in the late 1970s and 1980s.

Representative paintings

In other arts

The Expressionist movement encompassed various cultural domains, including dance, sculpture, cinema, and theatre.

Dance

Prominent exponents of expressionist dance included Mary Wigman, Rudolf von Laban, and Pina Bausch.

Sculpture

Several sculptors adopted the Expressionist style, exemplified by Ernst Barlach. Additionally, some Expressionist artists primarily recognized as painters, such as Erich Heckel, also engaged in sculptural work.

Cinema

German cinema featured a distinct Expressionist style, exemplified by seminal works such as Robert Wiene's The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920), Paul Wegener's The Golem: How He Came into the World (1920), Fritz Lang's Metropolis (1927), and F. W. Murnau's Nosferatu, a Symphony of Horror (1922) and The Last Laugh (1924). Beyond its direct application, the term "Expressionist" occasionally denotes stylistic elements reminiscent of German Expressionism, including the cinematography of film noir or the distinctive aesthetic found in several films by Ingmar Bergman. Characteristic techniques associated with this movement encompass distorted set designs, chiaroscuro lighting, stylized acting, unconventional camera angles, and superimposition. The prominent appearance of these stylistic devices in certain classic Hollywood films, such as F.W. Murnau's *Sunrise: A Song of Two Humans* (1927), underscores the considerable impact of this emerging generation of German filmmakers on American cinematic practices.

More broadly, however, the designation "Expressionism" may characterize cinematic aesthetics marked by significant artifice, for instance, the Technicolor melodramas directed by Douglas Sirk or the distinctive sound and visual design prevalent in David Lynch's filmography.

Literature

Journals

Berlin was home to two prominent Expressionist journals: Der Sturm, launched by Herwarth Walden in 1910, and Die Aktion, which commenced publication in 1911 under the editorship of Franz Pfemfert. Der Sturm featured poetry and prose by a diverse array of contributors, including Peter Altenberg, Max Brod, Richard Dehmel, Alfred Döblin, Anatole France, Knut Hamsun, Arno Holz, Karl Kraus, Selma Lagerlöf, Adolf Loos, Heinrich Mann, Paul Scheerbart, and René Schickele. Additionally, it showcased writings, drawings, and prints from artists such as Kokoschka, Kandinsky, and members of Der blaue Reiter.

Drama

Oskar Kokoschka's 1909 playlet, Murderer, The Hope of Women, is frequently identified as the inaugural Expressionist drama. The narrative depicts an unnamed man and woman engaged in a struggle for dominance. The man brands the woman, who subsequently stabs and imprisons him. He then liberates himself, causing her to collapse dead upon his touch. The play concludes with him slaughtering those around him, described in the text as "like mosquitoes." The profound simplification of characters into mythic archetypes, the incorporation of choral effects, declamatory dialogue, and an intensified emotional pitch collectively became hallmarks of subsequent Expressionist theatrical works. German composer Paul Hindemith later adapted this play into an opera, which premiered in 1921.

Expressionism exerted a profound influence on early 20th-century German theatre, with Georg Kaiser and Ernst Toller emerging as its most renowned playwrights. Additional prominent Expressionist dramatists comprised Reinhard Sorge, Walter Hasenclever, Hans Henny Jahnn, and Arnolt Bronnen. Significant precursors to the movement included Swedish playwright August Strindberg and German actor-dramatist Frank Wedekind. In the 1920s, Expressionism experienced a concise period of impact within American theatre, notably influencing early modernist plays by Eugene O'Neill (The Hairy Ape, The Emperor Jones, and The Great God Brown), Sophie Treadwell (Machinal), and Elmer Rice (The Adding Machine).

Expressionist dramas frequently depict the spiritual awakening and tribulations endured by their protagonists. Certain works employ an episodic dramatic structure, designated as Stationendramen (station plays), which draw inspiration from the depiction of Jesus's suffering and death in the Stations of the Cross. Strindberg notably pioneered this structural approach in his autobiographical trilogy, To Damascus. Furthermore, these plays commonly dramatize the conflict against bourgeois values and entrenched authority, often personified by the paternal figure. For instance, in Sorge's The Beggar (Der Bettler), the young protagonist's mentally unstable father obsesses over the notion of extracting wealth from Mars and is ultimately poisoned by his son. Similarly, in Bronnen's Parricide (Vatermord), the son fatally stabs his tyrannical father, subsequently confronting the frenzied sexual advances of his mother.

In Expressionist drama, dialogue can range from expansive and rhapsodic to clipped and telegraphic. Director Leopold Jessner gained renown for his Expressionistic productions, frequently featuring stark, steeply raked staircases, an idea adapted from Symbolist director and designer Edward Gordon Craig. Staging held particular significance in Expressionist drama, with directors abandoning realistic illusions to position actors in movements approaching two-dimensionality. Furthermore, directors extensively utilized lighting effects to generate sharp contrasts and to intensely emphasize emotion and communicate the play's or a scene's central message.

Notable German Expressionist playwrights include:

• Georg Kaiser (1878)
• Ernst Toller (1893–1939)
• Hans Henny Jahnn (1894–1959)
• Reinhard Sorge (1892–1916)
• Bertolt Brecht (1898–1956)

Playwrights demonstrating Expressionist influence include:

• Seán O'Casey (1880–1964)
• Eugene O'Neill (1885–1953)
• Elmer Rice (1892–1967)
• Tennessee Williams (1911–1983)
• Arthur Miller (1915–2005)
• Samuel Beckett (1906–1989)

Poetry

Poets associated with German Expressionism include:

• Jakob van Hoddis
• Georg Trakl
• Walter Rheiner
• Gottfried Benn
• Georg Heym
• Else Lasker-Schüler
• Ernst Stadler
• August Stramm
• Rainer Maria Rilke (1875–1926): The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge (1910)
• Geo Milev

Other poets influenced by Expressionism include:

• T. S. Eliot
• Rudolf Broby-Johansen
• Tom Kristensen
• Pär Lagerkvist
• Edith Södergran

Prose

In prose, Expressionism influenced the early stories and novels of Alfred Döblin, and Franz Kafka is occasionally categorized as an Expressionist. Additional writers and works identified as Expressionist include:

• Franz Kafka (1883–1924): "The Metamorphosis" (1915), The Trial (1925), The Castle (1926)
• Alfred Döblin (1878–1957): Berlin Alexanderplatz (1929)
• Wyndham Lewis (1882–1957)
• Djuna Barnes (1892–1982): Nightwood (1936)
• Malcolm Lowry (1909–1957): Under the Volcano (1947)
• Ernest Hemingway
• James Joyce (1882–1941): "The Nighttown" section of Ulysses (1922)
• Patrick White (1912–1990)
• D. H. Lawrence
• Sheila Watson: Double Hook
• Elias Canetti: Auto-da-Fé
• Thomas Pynchon
• William Faulkner
• James Hanley (1897–1985)
• Raul Brandão (1867–1930): Húmus (1917)
• Leonid Andreyev (1871–1919): Devil's Diary (1919)

Music

The designation "expressionism" was likely first applied to music in 1918, particularly in reference to Schoenberg, due to his departure from "traditional forms of beauty" to articulate intense emotions, mirroring the approach of painter Kandinsky. Key Expressionist figures include Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern, and Alban Berg, all members of the Second Viennese School; Schoenberg was also an Expressionist painter. Other composers linked to Expressionism encompass Krenek (known for his Second Symphony), Paul Hindemith (The Young Maiden), Igor Stravinsky (Japanese Songs), and Alexander Scriabin (particularly his late piano sonatas) (Adorno 2009, 275). Béla Bartók also demonstrated significant Expressionist tendencies in his early 20th-century works, such as Bluebeard's Castle (1911), The Wooden Prince (1917), and The Miraculous Mandarin (1919). Notable precursors to Expressionism include Richard Wagner (1813–1883), Gustav Mahler (1860–1911), and Richard Strauss (1864–1949).

Theodor Adorno characterizes Expressionism as deeply engaged with the unconscious, asserting that "the depiction of fear lies at the centre" of Expressionist music, where dissonance prevails, effectively banishing the "harmonious, affirmative element of art" (Adorno 2009, 275–76). Exemplary Expressionist compositions include Schoenberg's Erwartung and Die Glückliche Hand, as well as Alban Berg's opera Wozzeck (derived from Georg Büchner's play Woyzeck). Drawing a parallel with painting, Expressionist artistic technique involves distorting reality, primarily through colors and shapes, to evoke a nightmarish overall effect. Similarly, Expressionist music employs dramatically heightened dissonance to generate an aurally nightmarish atmosphere.

Architecture

In the realm of architecture, two structures are specifically recognized as Expressionist: Bruno Taut's Glass Pavilion, featured at the 1914 Cologne Werkbund Exhibition, and Erich Mendelsohn's Einstein Tower in Potsdam, Germany, completed in 1921. The interior of Hans Poelzig's Grosse Schauspielhaus theatre in Berlin, designed for director Max Reinhardt, is also occasionally cited as an example. However, the influential architectural critic and historian Sigfried Giedion, in his 1941 work Space, Time and Architecture, dismissed Expressionist architecture as merely a phase in the evolution of functionalism. In Mexico, during 1953, the German émigré Mathias Goeritz published the Arquitectura Emocional ("Emotional Architecture") manifesto, asserting that "architecture's principal function is emotion." This concept was subsequently adopted by the modern Mexican architect Luis Barragán, significantly influencing his practice. Both architects collaborated on the Torres de Satélite project (1957–58), which was guided by Goeritz's principles of Arquitectura Emocional. It was not until the 1970s that Expressionism in architecture began to receive a more favorable re-evaluation.

Post-expressionism

• Post-expressionism
• New Objectivity
• History of Painting
• Western Painting

References

Matějček, Antonín, cited in Gordon, Donald E. (1987). Expressionism: Art and Idea, p. 175. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300033106.

• Antonín Matějček cited in Gordon, Donald E. (1987). Expressionism: Art and Idea, p. 175. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300033106
• Krause, Frank (ed.). (2010). Expressionism and Gender / Expressionismus und Geschlecht. Göttingen: V&R unipress. ISBN 3899717171.
• Mitchell, Jonah F. (2003). Doctoral thesis: Expressionism between Western modernism and Teutonic Sonderweg. Berlin. Courtesy of the author.
• Nietzsche, Friedrich. (1872). The Birth of Tragedy Out of The Spirit of Music. Translated by Clifton P. Fadiman. New York: Dover, 1995. ISBN 0-486-28515-4.
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• Dijkstra, Bram. (2003). American expressionism: art and social change, 1920–1950. New York: H.N. Abrams, in association with the Columbus Museum of Art. ISBN 0-8109-4231-3, ISBN 978-0-8109-4231-8.
• Elger, Ditmar. Expressionism-A Revolution in German Art. ISBN 978-3-8228-3194-6.
• Schimmel, Paul and Stein, Judith E. (1988). The Figurative fifties: New York figurative expressionism, The Other Tradition. Newport Beach, California: Newport Harbor Art Museum; New York: Rizzoli. ISBN 978-0-8478-0942-4, ISBN 978-0-91749312-6.
• Herskovic, Marika. (2009). American Abstract and Figurative Expressionism: Style Is Timely Art Is Timeless. New York School Press. ISBN 978-0-9677994-2-1.
• Lakatos, Gabriela Luciana. (2011). Expressionism Today. University of Art and Design Cluj Napoca.

Hottentots in tails – a turbulent history of the group by Christian Saehrendt.

• Hottentots in tails – a turbulent history of the group by Christian Saehrendt at signandsight.com
• German Expressionism.