Fluxus was an international, interdisciplinary collective of artists, composers, designers, and poets active during the 1960s and 1970s. Inspired by John Cage, this group engaged in experimental art performances that prioritized chance-based processes over the finished product. Fluxus is recognized for its innovative contributions across various artistic media and disciplines, leading to the development of new art forms. These include intermedia, a term coined by Fluxus artist Dick Higgins; conceptual art, initially developed by Henry Flynt, an artist whose association with Fluxus is debated; and video art, first pioneered by Nam June Paik and Wolf Vostell. Dutch gallerist and art critic Harry Ruhé described Fluxus as "the most radical and experimental art movement of the sixties".
Fluxus was an international, interdisciplinary community of artists, composers, designers, and poets during the 1960s and 1970s who, inspired by John Cage, engaged in experimental art performances which emphasized the artistic tradition of chance-based process over the finished product. Fluxus is known for experimental contributions to different artistic media and disciplines and for generating new art forms. These art forms include intermedia, a term coined by Fluxus artist Dick Higgins; conceptual art, first developed by Henry Flynt, an artist contentiously associated with Fluxus; and video art, first pioneered by Nam June Paik and Wolf Vostell. Dutch gallerist and art critic Harry Ruhé describes Fluxus as "the most radical and experimental art movement of the sixties".
Fluxus artists produced diverse performance "events," encompassing enactments of scores, "Neo-Dada" noise music, and time-based works, alongside concrete poetry, visual art, urban planning, architecture, design, literature, and publishing. Many Fluxus practitioners shared anti-commercial and anti-art sensibilities. The movement is sometimes characterized as "intermedia." The theories and practices of composer John Cage profoundly influenced Fluxus, particularly his concepts that artistic endeavors should commence without a preconceived outcome and that art functions as an interactive space between artist and audience. Consequently, the creative process was privileged over the final artifact. Another significant influence was the readymades of Marcel Duchamp, a French artist active in the Dada movement (1916 – c. 1922). George Maciunas, widely considered the founder of this fluid movement, coined the name Fluxus in 1961 for a proposed magazine.
Numerous artists of the 1960s participated in Fluxus activities, including Joseph Beuys, Willem de Ridder, George Brecht, John Cage, Robert Filliou, Ben Vautier, Al Hansen, Dick Higgins, Bengt af Klintberg, Alison Knowles, Addi Køpcke, Yoko Ono, Nam June Paik, Shigeko Kubota, La Monte Young, Mary Bauermeister, Joseph Byrd, Ben Patterson, Daniel Spoerri, Jackson Mac Low, Eric Andersen, Ken Friedman, Terry Riley, and Wolf Vostell. This group constituted a diverse community of collaborators who mutually influenced one another and often maintained personal friendships. Collectively, they held what were then considered radical perspectives on art and its societal role. Although Fluxus founder George Maciunas proposed a well-known manifesto, it was not widely adopted, as few regarded Fluxus as a cohesive movement. Instead, a series of festivals in Wiesbaden, Copenhagen, Stockholm, Amsterdam, London, and New York fostered a loose yet robust community united by similar beliefs. Reflecting its reputation as a forum for experimentation, some Fluxus artists characterized the movement as a laboratory.
Early History (Late 1950s–1965)
Origins
Fluxus originated from numerous concepts developed by composer John Cage within his experimental music from the 1930s to the 1960s. Following his attendance at D. T. Suzuki's Zen Buddhism courses, Cage conducted a series of experimental composition classes at the New School for Social Research in New York City between 1957 and 1959. These classes delved into the concepts of chance and indeterminacy in artistic creation, utilizing musical scores as foundational elements for compositions capable of infinite interpretations. Several artists and musicians who later joined Fluxus, such as Jackson Mac Low, La Monte Young, George Brecht, Al Hansen, and Dick Higgins, were among Cage's students. Marcel Duchamp's work also exerted significant influence. Furthermore, Dada Poets and Painters, an anthology of translated Dada texts edited by Robert Motherwell, proved highly influential and was extensively read by Fluxus participants. The term "anti-art," a precursor to Dada, was coined by Duchamp around 1913, coinciding with his creation of the first readymades—ordinary objects either found or purchased and subsequently designated as art. These indifferently selected readymades and altered readymades questioned the prevailing idea of art as an intrinsically optical experience, reliant on conventional academic artistic proficiency. Duchamp's altered readymade, Fountain (1917), signed "R. Mutt," stands as the most renowned illustration. In 1915, while seeking refuge from World War I in New York, Duchamp established a Dada group alongside Francis Picabia and American artist Man Ray. Other prominent members included Arthur Cravan, Florine Stettheimer, and Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven, whom some credit with suggesting the concept for Fountain to Duchamp. By 1916, these artists, particularly Duchamp, Man Ray, and Picabia, had become central figures in radical anti-art movements within New York City. Their artistic contributions significantly influenced Fluxus and conceptual art broadly. During the late 1950s and early 1960s, Fluxus and concurrent movements, such as Happenings, Nouveau réalisme, mail art, and action art in Japan, Austria, and other international contexts, were frequently categorized under the umbrella term "Neo-Dada."
Several other contemporary occurrences are recognized either as precursors to Fluxus or as foundational proto-Fluxus events. The most frequently mentioned include the Chambers Street loft concerts in New York, curated by Yoko Ono and La Monte Young in 1961, which showcased works by Ono, Jackson Mac Low, Joseph Byrd, and Henry Flynt. Also cited is the month-long Yam festival, organized by George Brecht and Robert Watts in upstate New York in May 1963, featuring Ray Johnson and Allan Kaprow, which represented the culmination of a year's worth of Mail Art projects. Additionally, a series of concerts took place in Mary Bauermeister's studio in Cologne from 1960 to 1961, involving Nam June Paik and John Cage, among numerous other artists. During one of these 1960 events, specifically during his performance of Etude pour Piano, Paik famously jumped into the audience, severed John Cage's tie, exited the concert hall, and subsequently telephoned the organizers to declare the piece concluded. As articulated by Dick Higgins, one of the movement's founders:
Fluxus emerged from existing artistic practices, with the name subsequently applied to these pre-existing works. It appeared to commence mid-situation rather than at its inception.
Neo-Dada: An Anthology of Chance Operations to Early Fluxus
In 1961, American musician and artist La Monte Young was commissioned to guest-edit an East Coast edition of the West Coast literary journal Beatitude, which was to be titled Beatitude East. However, following the premature termination of the Beatitude collaboration, George Maciunas, a professional graphic designer, approached Young to inquire about his assistance in laying out and publishing the Neo-Dada content. Maciunas provided the necessary paper, design expertise, and partial funding for the anthology's publication, which featured works by contemporary New York avant-garde artists. The project adopted the abbreviated title An Anthology of Chance Operations, derived from its comprehensive original title: An Anthology of chance operations concept art anti-art indeterminacy improvisation meaningless work natural disasters plans of action stories diagrams Music poetry essays dance constructions mathematics compositions. An Anthology of Chance Operations was ultimately completed and published in 1963 by Jackson Mac Low and La Monte Young, as Maciunas had relocated to Germany by that time to evade his creditors. Following the establishment of a short-lived art gallery on Madison Avenue, which exhibited works by Dick Higgins, Yoko Ono, Jonas Mekas, Ray Johnson, Henry Flynt, and La Monte Young, Maciunas relocated to Wiesbaden, West Germany. This move occurred after the gallery's failure, when he secured a position as a graphic designer with the US Air Force in late 1961. From Wiesbaden, Maciunas maintained communication with Young and other artists based in New York City, as well as with expatriate American artists such as Benjamin Patterson and Emmett Williams, whom he encountered in Europe. By September 1962, Dick Higgins and Alison Knowles joined Maciunas in Europe, traveling there to assist him in promoting a forthcoming publication, Fluxus, intended as the inaugural volume in a series of yearbooks showcasing artists' works. Maciunas initially conceived the title Fluxus for an unrealized anthology featuring Lithuanian artists in New York; however, he subsequently applied the term to artists whose work aligned with the principles of the Anthology of Chance Operations. This shift occurred because, after his family fled Lithuania at the conclusion of World War II, they settled in New York, where Maciunas first encountered the avant-garde artists and musicians associated with John Cage and La Monte Young. Consequently, Maciunas coined the name Fluxus not for his envisioned collective of Lithuanian artists, but rather for the Neo-Dada art created by diverse artists sharing a common sensibility, aiming to "fuse... cultural, social, & political revolutionaries into [a] united front and action."
Maciunas publicly introduced the term Fluxus (signifying 'to flow') within a brochure prospectus. He distributed this document to attendees at a festival he organized, titled Après Cage; Kleinen Sommerfest (After Cage; a Small Summer Festival), held in Wuppertal, West Germany, on June 9, 1962.
Maciunas, a dedicated art historian, initially characterized Fluxus as 'neo-dadaism' or 'renewed dadaism'. He corresponded extensively with Raoul Hausmann, an original Dadaist, detailing his conceptual framework. Hausmann, however, advised against the adoption of this terminology:
I observe with considerable interest your remarks concerning German Neo-Dadaists. However, I believe that even American artists should refrain from using the term "Neo-Dadaism," as "neo" conveys no substantive meaning and "-ism" is an antiquated suffix. Why not simply "Fluxus"? This alternative strikes me as significantly superior, given its novelty, whereas Dada is historically situated.
During the festival, Maciunas delivered a lecture titled 'Neo-Dada in the United States'. Following an endeavor to define 'Concretist Neo-Dada' art, he articulated Fluxus's opposition to the segregation of everyday life from artistic practice. By employing 'anti-art and artistic banalities,' Fluxus aimed to challenge the 'traditional artificialities of art.' The lecture concluded with the pronouncement: "Anti-art is life, is nature, is true reality—it is one and all."
European Festivals and Fluxkits
In 1962, Maciunas, Higgins, and Knowles journeyed to Europe to promote the forthcoming Fluxus publication through concerts featuring antique musical instruments. With the assistance of artists including Joseph Beuys and Wolf Vostell, Maciunas subsequently organized a series of Fluxfests across Western Europe. Commencing with 14 concerts held between September 1 and 23, 1962, in Wiesbaden, these Fluxfests showcased works by musicians such as John Cage, Ligeti, Penderecki, Terry Riley, and Brion Gysin, alongside performance pieces authored by Higgins, Knowles, George Brecht, Nam June Paik, Ben Patterson, Robert Filliou, and Emmett Williams, among numerous others. One particular performance, Piano Activities by Philip Corner, gained notoriety for challenging the significant cultural status of the piano in post-war German households.
The musical score, which instructed performers to engage in actions such as "play," "pluck or tap," "scratch or rub," "drop objects" on, "act on strings with," "strike soundboard, pins, lid or drag various kinds of objects across them," and "act in any way on underside of piano," culminated in the complete destruction of a piano during its execution by Maciunas, Higgins, and other participants in Wiesbaden. This performance was deemed sufficiently scandalous to be broadcast on German television four times, notably introduced with the sensational phrase, "The lunatics have escaped!"
At the end we did Corner's Piano Activities not according to his instructions since we systematically destroyed a piano which I bought for $5 and had to have it all cut up to throw it away, otherwise we would have had to pay movers, a very practical composition, but German sentiments about this "instrument of Chopin" were hurt and they made a row about it...
Concurrently, Maciunas leveraged his professional connections to initiate the printing of inexpensive, mass-produced books and artistic multiples by artists participating in the performances. The initial three publications included Composition 1961 by La Monte Young, An Anthology of Chance Operations edited by Young and Jackson Mac Low, and Water Yam by George Brecht. Comprising a collection of event scores printed on small cards and housed in a cardboard box, Water Yam marked the inaugural release in a series of artworks published by Maciunas, subsequently termed Fluxkits. These Fluxkits, characterized by their affordability, mass production, and ease of distribution, were conceived as the foundation for an expanding archive of contemporary performance art. Published in an edition of 1,000 copies with an initial price of $4, Water Yam saw limited sales; by April 1964, nearly a year post-publication, 996 copies remained unsold.
Maciunas initially intended to personally manage the design, editing, and funding of each edition, with the understanding that copyright would reside with the collective. Initial profit distribution was set at an 80/20 split, favoring the artist. However, as many composers already held existing publishing agreements, Fluxus rapidly shifted its focus from music to performance and visual art. For example, John Cage refrained from publishing works under the Fluxus designation, owing to his contractual obligations with Edition Peters, a music publishing house.
Maciunas seemed to have a fantastic ability to get things done.... if you had things to be printed he could get them printed. It's pretty hard in East Brunswick to get good offset printing. It's not impossible, but it's not so easy, and since I'm very lazy it was a relief to find somebody who could take the burden off my hands. So there was this guy Maciunas, a Lithuanian or Bulgarian, or somehow a refugee or whatever—beautifully dressed—"astonishing looking" would be a better adjective. He was somehow able to carry the whole thing off, without my having to go 57 miles to find a printer.
Due to Maciunas's color vision deficiency, Fluxus multiples were predominantly produced in black and white.
New York and the FluxShops
Following the termination of his contract with the U.S. Air Force on account of ill health, Maciunas was compelled to return to the United States on September 3, 1963. Upon his return to New York, he commenced organizing a series of street concerts and established a new venue, the 'Fluxhall,' located on Canal Street. A series of twelve concerts, described as "away from the beaten track of the New York art scene," were held on Canal Street between April 11 and May 23, 1964. Featuring photographic documentation by Maciunas, works by Ben Vautier, Alison Knowles, and Takehisa Kosugi were presented publicly without charge, though it was noted that, in practice, there was "no audience to speak of."
The Fluxus movement, as articulated by Brecht, perceived traditional venues like "concert halls, theaters, and art galleries" as "mummifying" and restrictive. Consequently, its artists gravitated towards unconventional spaces such as "streets, homes, and railway stations." Maciunas identified a profound political dimension within this explicitly anti-institutional artistic output, which significantly fueled his personal dedication to the movement. Leveraging his skills as a professional graphic designer, Maciunas was instrumental in establishing the perceived coherence that Fluxus later exhibited.
In addition to the New York shop, Maciunas developed an extensive distribution network for this emerging art form, extending across Europe and subsequently establishing outlets in California and Japan. Gallery and mail-order operations were founded in various locations, including Amsterdam, Villefranche-Sur-Mer, Milan, and London. By 1965, the inaugural anthology, Fluxus 1, was released. This collection comprised manila envelopes fastened together, containing works by numerous artists who would later achieve prominence, such as La Monte Young, Christo, Joseph Byrd, and Yoko Ono. Other available items included modified playing cards by George Brecht, sensory boxes by Ay-O, a periodic newsletter featuring contributions from artists and musicians like Ray Johnson and John Cale, and tin cans containing poems, songs, and recipes centered on beans by Alison Knowles.
Originale by Stockhausen
Upon his return to New York, Maciunas reconnected with Henry Flynt, who advocated for a more explicit political orientation among Fluxus members. A direct consequence of these discussions was the establishment of a picket line at the American premiere of Originale, a recent composition by German composer Karlheinz Stockhausen, on September 8, 1964. Maciunas and Flynt labeled Stockhausen a 'Cultural Imperialist,' a designation strongly contested by other Fluxus members. This disagreement led to a situation where Fluxus members like Nam June Paik and Jackson Mac Low crossed a picket line formed by fellow members, including Ben Vautier and Takako Saito, who distributed leaflets condemning Stockhausen as "a characteristic European-North American ruling-class Artist." Dick Higgins initially joined the picket but subsequently entered the venue to perform with the other artists.
A participant recounted the events: "Maciunas and his associate Henry Flynt endeavored to organize Fluxus members in a picket outside the venue, bearing white cards that declaredOriginale to be objectionable. They further attempted to assert that Fluxus members participating in the performance inside were no longer affiliated with the movement. This action was perceived as absurd, as it created a division. I found the situation amusing, and consequently, I initially joined Maciunas and Henry with a card, then proceeded inside to participate in the performance; this resulted in both factions expressing their displeasure with me. Nevertheless, some individuals contend that Fluxus ceased to exist on that day—a notion I once entertained myself—but it ultimately proved incorrect."
This particular event, organized by Charlotte Moorman as an integral component of her 2nd Annual New York Avant Garde Festival, solidified the animosity between Maciunas and Moorman. Maciunas consistently insisted that artists affiliated with Fluxus refrain from participating in the annual festival, frequently expelling those who disregarded his directives. This antagonism persisted throughout Maciunas' lifetime, often to Moorman's perplexity, despite her ongoing advocacy for Fluxus art and its practitioners.
Middle Period (1965–1978)
Perceived Dissensions and the Influence of Asian Art
The protest against Originale represented the zenith of Maciunas' agitprop methodology, a strategy that alienated numerous early adherents of Fluxus. Jackson Mac Low, for instance, resigned promptly in April 1963 upon learning of 'antisocial' proposals, such as the destruction of trucks beneath the Hudson River. Brecht similarly threatened to withdraw over this issue, subsequently departing New York in the spring of 1965. Concurrently, Dick Higgins, despite his enduring commitment to Fluxus principles, experienced a rift with Maciunas, ostensibly due to Higgins' establishment of the Something Else Press, which published numerous works by prominent figures associated with Fluxus and other avant-garde artists. Meanwhile, Charlotte Moorman continued to organize her Annual Avant Garde Festival in New York.
Perceived challenges to the cohesion of Maciunas' leadership within Fluxus facilitated a growing influence of Japanese members within the group. Following her return to Japan in 1961, Yoko Ono had consistently advised colleagues relocating to New York to connect with Maciunas; by the time she herself returned in early 1965, artists such as Hi Red Center, Shigeko Kubota, Takako Saito, Mieko Shiomi, Yasunao Tone, and Ay-O had already begun contributing works to Fluxus, often characterized by a contemplative nature.
In 1964, in Tokyo, Yoko Ono, who maintained an independent stance from the Fluxus community, independently published her artist’s book Grapefruit. This publication featured event scores and various other forms of participatory art.
The following is an event score extracted from the book:
Cloud Piece
Imagine the clouds dripping.
Dig a hole in your garden to put them in.
Proto-Performance Art
On September 25, 1965, the FluxOrchestra, under the direction of La Monte Young, performed at Carnegie Recital Hall in New York City, featuring a poster and program designed by George Maciunas. During the event, program copies were folded into paper airplanes and launched. The evening's program encompassed performances such as "Falling Event" by Chieko Shiomi, "Symphony No. 3 'On the Floor from 'Clouds Scissors'" by George Brecht, "4 Pieces for Orchestra to La Monte Young" by Yoko Ono, "Disappearing Music for Face" by Shiomi, "Tactical Pieces for Orchestra" and "Olivetti Adding Machine in Memoriam for Adriano Olivetti" by Anthony Cox, "Trance for Orchestra" by Watts, "Sky Piece to Jesus Christ*" by Ono, "Octet for Winds 'In the Water' from 'Cloud Scissors" by Brecht, "Piece" by Shigeko Kubota, "1965 $50" by Young, "Piano Piece" by Tomas Schmit, "Sword Piece" by Cox, "Music for Late Afternoon Together With" by Shiomi, "2" by Watts, "c/t Trace" by Watts, "Intermission Event" by Willem de Ridder, "Moviee Music" by Stan Vanderbeek, "Mechanical Orchestra" by Joe Jones, and "Secret Room" by Ben Vautier.
In 1969, Fluxus artist Joe Jones established his JJ Music Store (also known as Tone Deaf Music Store) at 18 North Moore Street, showcasing his repetitive drone music machines. A window installation allowed passersby to activate the displayed noise music machines by pressing various buttons. Jones also hosted intimate musical installation performances at the venue, either solo or in collaboration with other Fluxus artists, including Yoko Ono and John Lennon. Between April 18 and June 12, 1970, Ono and Lennon, performing as the Plastic Ono Band, organized a series of Fluxus art events and concerts titled GRAPEFRUIT FLUXBANQUET at this venue. This series was advertised with a poster conceived by Fluxus leader George Maciunas. Performances included Come Impersonating John Lennon & Yoko Ono, Grapefruit Banquet (April 11–17) by George Maciunas, Yoshimasa Wada, Nye Ffarrabas (formerly Bici Forbes and Bici Forbes Hendricks), Geoffrey Hendricks, and Robert Watts; Do It Yourself (April 11–17) by Yoko Ono; Tickets by John Lennon + Fluxagents (April 18–24) with Wada, Ben Vautier and Maciunas; Clinic by Yoko Ono + Hi Red Center (April 25-May 1); Blue Room by Yoko + Fluxmasterliars (May 2–8); Weight & Water by Yoko + Fluxfiremen (May 9–15); Capsule by Yoko + Flux Space Center (May 16–22) with Maciunas, Paul Sharits, George Brecht, Ay-O, Ono, Watts, John Cavanaugh; Portrait of John Lennon as a Young Cloud by Yoko + Everybody (May 23–29); The Store by Yoko + Fluxfactory (May 30-June 5), with Ono, Maciunas, Wada, Ay-O; and finally Examination by Yoko + Fluxschool (June 6–12) with Ono, Geoffrey Hendricks, Watts, Mieko Shiomi and Robert Filliou.
Objects Blurring Boundaries
With the increasing prominence of Fluxus, Maciunas intensified his efforts to market affordable multiples. The second Fluxus anthology, the Fluxkit (late 1964), compiled early three-dimensional works by the collective within a businessman's case, directly referencing Duchamp's Boite en Valise. Within a year, preparations for a subsequent anthology, Fluxus 2, were well underway, slated to feature Flux films by John Cage and Yoko Ono (accompanied by handheld projectors), altered matchboxes and postcards by Ben Vautier, plastic food items by Claes Oldenburg, FluxMedicine by Shigeko Kubota (comprising empty pill packages), and various artworks crafted from rocks, ink stamps, expired travel tickets, unsolvable puzzles, and a device designed to induce humming.
Maciunas's commitment to collective principles extended to the realm of authorship, resulting in numerous works from this era being anonymous, incorrectly attributed, or having their provenance subsequently disputed. A further complexity arose from Maciunas's practice of significantly modifying artistic concepts submitted by various creators prior to their production. For instance, Solid Plastic in Plastic Box, attributed to Per Kirkeby in 1967, was originally conceived by Kirkeby as a metal container bearing the inscription 'This Box Contains Wood' and designed to reveal sawdust upon opening. However, by the time Maciunas manufactured the multiple, it had transformed into a solid plastic block encased within a plastic box of identical color. Conversely, Maciunas assigned Degree Face Clock, a concept involving a clock face calibrated in 360°, to Kirkeby, despite its original conception by Robert Watts.
Robert Watts recounted that he had independently conceived the ideas for Degree Face Clock and Compass Face Clock, expressing surprise that George Maciunas marketed these works under Per Kirkeby's name. Watts characterized Maciunas's operational method as one where prevalent artistic concepts were arbitrarily assigned to various artists for production.
During this period, Maciunas employed additional strategies, such as acquiring substantial quantities of plastic boxes wholesale and distributing them to artists with the straightforward instruction to transform them into Fluxkits. He also capitalized on the burgeoning international network of artists to solicit contributions of materials essential for completing various works. For example, Robert Watts' 1973 piece, Fluxatlas, incorporates small rocks provided by group members from diverse global locations.
The Genesis of Performance Art
Larry Miller, who has been affiliated with the group since 1969, has not only contributed numerous original compositions to the collective's catalog but has also actively interpreted "classic" scores and disseminated Fluxus works to a broader audience, thereby blurring the conventional distinctions between artist, producer, and researcher. Beyond his own artistic endeavors, Miller has been instrumental in organizing, reconstructing, and performing at numerous Fluxus events, concurrently amassing an extensive archive of materials pertaining to Fluxus history. Miller's efforts significantly enhanced Fluxus's media visibility, exemplified by the global CNN coverage of the Off Limits exhibition at the Newark Museum (now The Newark Museum of Art) in 1999. His other contributions as an organizer, performer, and presenter within the Fluxus context include Performance in Fluxus Continue 1963–2003 at the Musée d'Art et d'Art Contemporain in Nice; Fluxus a la Carte in Amsterdam; and the Centraal Fluxus Festival at the Centraal Museum in Utrecht, Netherlands. In 2004, for Geoff Hendricks' Critical Mass: Happenings, Fluxus, Performance, Intermedia and Rutgers University 1958–1972, Miller re-enacted and modernized the track and field events of the Flux Olympics, which were initially presented in 1970. Furthermore, as a curatorial consultant for the Do-it Yourself Fluxus exhibition at AI – Art Interactive – in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Miller facilitated a hands-on experience for viewers, including the reconstruction of several segments of the historic Flux Labyrinth. This monumental and intricate maze, originally co-constructed by Miller and George Maciunas at the Akademie der Künste in Berlin in 1976, featured contributions from various Fluxus artists. Miller subsequently created an updated iteration of the Flux Labyrinth for the In the Spirit of Fluxus exhibition at the Walker Art Center in 1994, an endeavor Greil Marcus described as Miller "fine tuning the monster."
Feminism
Prominent women associated with Fluxus, including Carolee Schneemann and Charlotte Moorman, alongside founding members such as Alison Knowles and Yoko Ono, contributed diverse works across various media and thematic content, exemplified by Knowles's "Make a Salad" and "Make a Soup." These artists were profoundly influenced by their contemporary context and their engagement with preceding generations of artists, such as Sari Dienes, who pioneered the transformative artistic shifts of the 1960s and 1970s through distinctive personas and artistic expressions. Some women artists developed experimental and performative works centered on the body, establishing a potent female presence within Fluxus from its inception. Notable examples include Carolee Schneemann's "Interior Scroll," Yoko Ono's "Cut Piece," and Shigeko Kubota's "Vagina Painting." Women operating within Fluxus frequently critiqued their status in a male-dominated society while simultaneously exposing inherent inequalities within an art collective that purported to be inclusive and diverse. George Maciunas, in his rejection of Schneemann's membership in Fluxus, characterized her work as "guilty of Baroque tendencies, overt sexuality, and theatrical excess." "Interior Scroll" specifically served as Schneemann's rejoinder to her experiences as a filmmaker in the 1950s and 1960s, a period when male filmmakers often asserted that women should confine their artistic endeavors to dance.
During An evening with Fluxus women: a roundtable discussion, convened at New York University on February 19, 2009, by Women & Performance: a journal of feminist theory and the Department of Performance Studies, a passage from Mieko Shiomi articulated that "the best thing about Fluxus, I think, is that there was no discrimination on the basis of nationality and gender. Fluxus was open to anyone who shared similar thoughts about art and life. That's why women artists could be so active without feeling any frustration."
In An evening with Fluxus women: a roundtable discussion, hosted at New York University on 19 February 2009 by Women & Performance: a journal of feminist theory and the Department of Performance Studies, a passage from Mieko Shiomi reads "...the best thing about Fluxus, I think, is that there was no discrimination on the basis of nationality and gender. Fluxus was open to anyone who shared similar thoughts about art and life. That's why women artists could be so active without feeling any frustration."
Shigeko Kubota's Vagina Painting (1965) involved attaching a paintbrush, saturated with red paint, to her underwear and then applying it to paper while moving in a crouching posture. The paint symbolically evoked menstrual blood. Vagina Painting has been interpreted as a critical commentary on Jackson Pollock's action paintings and the broader male-dominated tradition of abstract expressionism.
Utopian communities
Several artists within the Fluxus movement expressed interest in establishing Flux communes, aiming to "bridge the gap between the artist community and the surrounding society." The inaugural commune, La Cédille qui Sourit, or The Cedilla That Smiles, was founded in Villefranche-sur-Mer, France, by Robert Filliou and George Brecht, operating from 1965 to 1968. Conceived as an "International Centre of Permanent Creation," this establishment functioned as a retail space for Fluxkits and other small items, while also hosting a "non-school" that promoted the motto: "A carefree exchange of information and experience. No students, no teachers. Perfect licence, at times to listen at times to talk." In 1966, Maciunas, Watts, and other collaborators capitalized on new legislation designed to revitalize the Manhattan district then known as 'Hell's Hundred Acres,' subsequently rebranded as SoHo. This legislation enabled artists to acquire live/work spaces in an area previously blighted by a proposed 18-lane expressway along Broome Street. Under Maciunas's leadership, plans were formulated to initiate a series of real-estate developments in the vicinity, intending to cultivate an artists' community within close proximity to the FluxShop on Canal Street.
Maciunas sought to establish collective workshops, food-buying cooperatives, and theaters to integrate the strengths of various media and connect the artist community with the broader society.
The initial warehouse, designated to accommodate Maciunas, Watts, Christo & Jeanne-Claude, Jonas Mekas, La Monte Young, and other individuals, was situated on Greene Street. Maciunas, drawing a parallel between these communities and Soviet Kolkhozes, unilaterally assumed the title 'Chairman of Bldg. Co-Op' without formal registration of an office or membership in the New York State Association of Realtors. FluxHousing Co-Operatives persisted in redeveloping the area for the subsequent decade, expanding their scope to encompass proposals for a FluxIsland—an appropriate island was identified near Antigua; however, the requisite funds for its acquisition and development were never secured—culminating in the establishment of the FluxFarm, a performance arts center in New Marlborough, Massachusetts. These initiatives were consistently hampered by financial difficulties and frequent conflicts with New York authorities, ultimately leading to Maciunas's severe assault on November 8, 1975, by individuals dispatched by an unpaid electrical contractor.
Fluxus: Post-1978 Developments
The Demise of George Maciunas
Maciunas relocated to the Berkshire Mountains in Western Massachusetts in the late 1970s. Two decades prior, Boston art collector Jean Brown and her late husband, Leonard Brown, transitioned their collecting focus from paintings to Dadaist and Surrealist art, manifestoes, and periodicals. Following Mr. Brown's death in 1971, Mrs. Brown moved to Tyringham and broadened her interests to include fields related to Fluxus, such as artists' books, concrete poetry, happenings, mail art, and performance art. Maciunas assisted in transforming her residence, originally a Shaker seed house, into a significant hub for both Fluxus artists and scholars, where Mrs. Brown would both prepare meals and present her collection to visitors. The focal point of these activities was a substantial archive room on the second floor, constructed by Maciunas, who had established residence in nearby Great Barrington. It was in 1977 that Maciunas was diagnosed with pancreatic and liver cancer.
Approximately three months prior to his death, Maciunas married his friend and companion, the poet Billie Hutching. Following a legal ceremony in Lee, Massachusetts, the couple conducted a "Fluxwedding" in a friend's SoHo loft on February 25, 1978. Dimitri Devyatkin produced a videotape documenting the Maciunas wedding. During the event, the bride and groom exchanged attire. Maciunas passed away on May 9, 1978, at a hospital in Boston.
His funeral, conducted in characteristic Fluxus fashion, was designated a "Fluxfeast and Wake," featuring a menu restricted to black, white, and purple foods. Maciunas's perspectives on Fluxus are preserved in a significant series of video conversations titled Interview With George Maciunas, conducted with Fluxus artist Larry Miller. This series has received international screenings and been translated into multiple languages. Over three decades, Miller filmed and compiled Fluxus-related materials, encompassing recordings featuring Joe Jones, Carolee Schneemann, Ben Vautier, Dick Higgins, and Alison Knowles, in addition to the 1978 interview with Maciunas.
Developments Post-Maciunas
Subsequent to Maciunas's death, a division emerged within Fluxus between certain collectors and curators who categorized Fluxus as an art movement confined to a specific period (1962 to 1978), and the artists themselves, many of whom persisted in viewing Fluxus as an evolving entity unified by its fundamental values and philosophical outlook. This divergence of perspectives was subsequently adopted by various theorists and historians. Consequently, Fluxus is referenced using either the past or present tense, depending on the interpretation. The precise definition of Fluxus consistently remained a contentious issue, further complicated by the passing of original artists who were still active at the time of Maciunas's demise.
It has been contended that curator Jon Hendricks' singular authority over the significant historical Gilbert and Lila Silverman Fluxus collection has allowed him to shape the narrative, particularly through numerous collection-subsidized publications, that Fluxus concluded with Maciunas's death. Hendricks posits that Fluxus constituted a historical movement confined to a specific period, maintaining that prominent Fluxus artists like Dick Higgins and Nam June Paik ceased to be active Fluxus practitioners after 1978, and that contemporary artists drawing inspiration from Fluxus cannot legitimately claim the title of Fluxus artists. This perspective is echoed by the Museum of Modern Art, which dates the movement primarily to the 1960s and 1970s. While many original Fluxus artists who remain active appreciate tributes from younger, Fluxus-influenced artists commemorating the movement, they generally discourage the application of the "Fluxus" label by these newer practitioners. Conversely, other scholars, including art historian Hannah Higgins—daughter of Fluxus artists Alison Knowles and Dick Higgins—contend that despite Maciunas's pivotal role, numerous other figures, such as Fluxus co-founder Higgins, continued their engagement with Fluxus following Maciunas's passing.
The advent of the internet in the 1990s facilitated the emergence of a dynamic post-Fluxus community within the digital realm. Several original Fluxus artists from the 1960s and 1970s, including Higgins, established online platforms such as the Fluxlist; subsequent to their involvement, a new generation of artists, writers, musicians, and performers has endeavored to perpetuate this work in cyberspace. The legacy of Fluxus also persisted through multi-media digital art performances, exemplified by an event presented by Other Minds at the SOMArts building in San Francisco in September 2011, commemorating the movement's 50th anniversary. This performance was curated by Adam Fong, who also participated as a performer alongside Yoshi Wada, Alison Knowles, Hannah Higgins, Luciano Chessa, and Adam Overton. In 2018, the Los Angeles Philharmonic's Fluxus Festival featured a Fluxus performance that integrated John Cage's "Europeras 1 and 2," directed by Yuval Sharon. Contemporary Fluxus artists continue to engage in performances, albeit on a more modest scale.
Influences
According to Maciunas, the Gutai group served as an immediate precursor to Fluxus, advocating for art as an anti-academic, psychophysical experience, characterized as an "art of matter as it is," a concept articulated by Shiraga Kazuo in 1956. Gutai became associated with a form of artistic mass-production, foreshadowing Fluxus's characteristic ambiguity between the refined and the mundane, and between high and low culture. Notably, avant-garde art in Japan gravitated towards informal rather than purely conceptual components, thereby fundamentally challenging the pronounced formality and symbolism prevalent in traditional Japanese art.
During the 1950s, the New York music scene reflected widespread post-war disenchantment prevalent across the developed world. This disillusionment fostered an inclination towards Buddhism and Zen principles in daily life, influencing aspects such as mental disposition, meditation practices, and approaches to nutrition and physical well-being. Concurrently, there was a perceived imperative for a more radical artistic sensibility. Themes of decay and the perceived insufficiency of modernity within artistic domains were embraced, drawing inspiration partly from Duchamp and Dada, and partly from an awareness of the inherent unease of contemporary societal existence.
Fluxus notably challenged conventional notions of artistic representation, advocating for a direct, unadorned presentation. This approach aligns with a fundamental distinction observed between Western and Japanese artistic traditions. A significant characteristic of Fluxus was its dissolution of the perceived boundaries between art and daily life, a prevalent theme in post-war artistic movements. Joseph Beuys notably articulated this perspective, asserting that "every man is an artist." Fluxus adopted an accessible, "economic" methodology, evident in its creation of modest objects from materials like paper and plastic. This resonates profoundly with core tenets of Japanese culture, particularly the inherent artistic value attributed to quotidian actions and items, alongside an aesthetic appreciation for frugality. Furthermore, this connects with Japanese art and the concept of *shibumi*, which embraces incompleteness and fosters an appreciation for unadorned objects, prioritizing subtlety over overt expression. The distinguished Japanese aesthetics scholar Onishi Yoshinori characterized the essence of Japanese art as "pantonomic," reflecting a consciousness that perceives no distinction among nature, art, and life. Within this framework, art serves as a conduit for engaging with life and reality, mirroring actual existence.
Fluxus Artistic Principles
Fluxus promoted a "do-it-yourself" aesthetic, prioritizing simplicity over intricate complexity. Similar to Dada, Fluxus exhibited a pronounced anti-commercialism and an anti-art sensibility, critiquing the conventional market-driven art world in favor of an artist-centric creative methodology. However, as articulated by Fluxus artist Robert Filliou, Fluxus distinguished itself from Dada through its broader range of aspirations, with its positive social and communitarian objectives significantly surpassing the anti-art tendencies also present within the movement.
Early associates of Fluxus included Joseph Beuys, Dick Higgins, Davi Det Hompson, Nam June Paik, Wolf Vostell, La Monte Young, Joseph Byrd, Al Hansen, and Yoko Ono, who collectively explored diverse media from performance art and poetry to experimental music and film. Adopting a position contrary to prevailing notions of tradition and professionalism in contemporary arts, the Fluxus group redirected focus from the artistic product to the artist's personality, actions, and perspectives. During their most active period in the 1960s and 1970s, Fluxus artists organized "action" events, participated in political discourse and public speaking, and created sculptural pieces utilizing unconventional materials. Exemplifying their radically unconventional approach were the video art contributions of Nam June Paik and Charlotte Moorman, and the performance art of Joseph Beuys and Wolf Vostell. In its nascent stages, the frequently playful demeanor of Fluxus artists led some observers to dismiss them as mere pranksters. Fluxus has been critically compared to Dada and certain facets of Pop Art, and is recognized as a foundational influence for mail art and no wave artists. Subsequent generations of artists, such as Mark Bloch, do not explicitly identify as Fluxus practitioners but instead develop derivative movements like Fluxpan or Jung Fluxus, thereby perpetuating certain Fluxus principles within a 21st-century, post-mail art framework.
Regarding their artistic methodology, Fluxus artists favored utilizing readily available materials, either producing their own works or engaging in collaborative creation with peers. The delegation of creative processes to commercial fabricators was generally not a component of Fluxus practice. George Maciunas personally hand-assembled numerous Fluxus multiples and editions. Although Maciunas manually constructed many items, his designs were conceived with mass production in mind. In contrast to other publishers who issued signed, numbered objects in limited, high-priced editions, Maciunas focused on producing affordable, open editions. Various other Fluxus publishers also issued distinct types of Fluxus editions. Among these, the most prominent was the Something Else Press, founded by Dick Higgins, which likely constituted the largest and most comprehensive Fluxus publisher, issuing books in editions ranging from 1,500 to 5,000 copies, all retailed at standard bookstore prices. Higgins coined the term "intermedia" in a 1966 essay.
The artistic forms most intrinsically linked with Fluxus are event scores and Fluxus boxes. Fluxus boxes, also known as Fluxkits or Fluxboxes, were conceived by George Maciunas, who compiled assortments of printed cards, games, and conceptual ideas, arranging them within small plastic or wooden containers.
Event Score
An event score, exemplified by George Brecht's "Drip Music," functions primarily as a performance art script. Typically concise, these scores comprise descriptions of actions to be executed, eschewing traditional dialogue. Fluxus practitioners distinguished event scores from "happenings." While happenings often involved intricate, extended performances designed to dissolve boundaries between performers, audience, performance, and reality, event performances were characteristically succinct and straightforward. These event performances aimed to valorize the commonplace, cultivate an awareness of the everyday, and challenge the perceived elitism of academic and commercially driven music and art.
The conceptualization of the "event" originated within Henry Cowell's philosophical framework for music. Cowell, who mentored both John Cage and Dick Higgins, coined the term subsequently adopted by Higgins and other artists to denote concise, succinct descriptions of works intended for performance. The designation "score" is employed precisely as it is in music, referring to a sequence of instructions enabling universal performance of a work. This concept aligns with Nam June Paik's "do it yourself" methodology and Ken Friedman's notion of "musicality." Although the "do it yourself" paradigm is frequently emphasized in art, it is crucial to acknowledge its origins in music. Prominent Fluxus artists such as Paik, Higgins, and Corner, having backgrounds as composers, introduced the principle that individuals could realize artworks through direct engagement. Friedman's concept of "musicality" extended this principle, positing that any individual could generate diverse forms of work from a score. This approach recognized the composer as the work's originator while permitting free realization and even interpretations significantly divergent from the composer's initial intentions.
Fluxus practitioners also incorporated various other creative modalities, including collage, sound art, music, video, and poetry, with a particular emphasis on visual and concrete poetry.
Use of Shock
Nam June Paik and his contemporaries within the Fluxus art movement profoundly comprehended the significant impact of shock upon the spectator. Fluxus artists posited that shock not only prompted viewers to scrutinize their own rationality but also served as a mechanism to rouse them "...from a perceptive lethargy furthered by habit." Paik articulated the role of shock in his Fluxus creations, stating: "Individuals attending my concerts or viewing my objects require a transition into an altered state of consciousness. They must achieve a heightened state. To induce this elevation, a minor shock is indispensable... Everyone who visited my exhibition observed the head and experienced this heightened state." This "head" referred to a real cow's head exhibited at the entrance of his 1963 exhibition, "Exposition of Music—Electronic Television," held at the Galerie Parnass in Wuppertal, Germany.
Artistic Philosophies
Fluxus shares a conceptual affinity with the earlier Dada art movement, underscoring the principle of anti-art and critiquing the perceived solemnity of modern art. Through their minimalist performances, Fluxus artists underscored the inherent connections they perceived between quotidian objects and art, echoing Duchamp's approach in works like Fountain. Fluxus artworks frequently manifested as "events," which Fluxus member George Brecht characterized as "the smallest unit of a situation." These events typically comprised a minimal instruction, thereby inviting accidents and other unforeseen outcomes. The integration of audience members into performances further contributed to the inherent randomness of these events, thereby actualizing Duchamp's concept of the viewer's role in completing the artwork.
Late Criticism
Establishing a cohesive historical narrative for Fluxus presents considerable challenges. In Fluxus: A Brief History and Other Fictions, Owen Smith acknowledges that the continuous publication of new scholarship and the ongoing evolution of Fluxus necessitate an open-ended historical interpretation. Fluxus's inherent resistance to categorization and its lack of a fixed identity facilitated broad participation; however, historical accounts suggest this openness was paradoxically constrained at times. Between 1962 and 1978, Maciunas frequently initiated expulsions, which significantly destabilized the collective's cohesion. Kristine Stiles, in an earlier essay, posited that the fundamental nature of Fluxus is "performative," though she has more recently expressed concern that this essential quality has been "eroded or threatened." Stiles contends that Fluxus subsequently shifted its focus towards published objects, cautioning that "Care must be taken that Fluxus is not transformed historically from a radical process and presentational art into a tradition static and representational art." Lacking centralized leadership, defined guidelines, a coherent collective strategy, and uniformity in its practices, Fluxus resists analysis using conventional critical methodologies. This inherent ambiguity is characteristic of Fluxus itself. Consequently, Fluxus often functions as a commentary on the limitations of discourse.
Fluxus Artists
Fluxus artists exhibited shared traits such as wit and a "childlikeness," yet they did not possess a uniform identity as an artistic community. This ambiguous self-definition facilitated the inclusion of diverse artists, notably a substantial number of women. The potential for Fluxus to have included more female members than any preceding Western art group is particularly noteworthy, especially given its emergence directly following the predominantly white male-dominated Abstract Expressionism movement. Nevertheless, despite the intended open-ended nature of Fluxus, Maciunas endeavored to preserve the collective's unity. Consequently, Maciunas faced accusations of expelling members who diverged from his interpretation of Fluxus's objectives.
Numerous artists, writers, and composers have been affiliated with Fluxus throughout its history:
Scholars, Critics, and Curators Affiliated with Fluxus
Significant Collections and Archives
- In 2023, Sub Rosa records issued a compilation of Fluxus sound works on CD, titled Fluxus & NeoFluxus / Stolen Symphony.
Selected Bibliography
Notes
Notes
Sources
- Hendricks, Jon (1988). Fluxus Codex. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 9780810909205.Kellein, Thomas; Hendricks, Jon (1995). Fluxus. London: Thames & Hudson.Kellein, Thomas (2007). George Maciunas: The Dream of Fluxus. New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 9780500976654.Maciunas, George; Ay-O (1998). Emmett Williams; Ann Noël (eds.). Mr. Fluxus – A Collective Portrait of George Maciunas, 1931–1978. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 9780500974612. OCLC 38974950.O'Dell, Kathy (Spring 1997). "Fluxus Feminus". TDR: The Drama Review. 41 (1): 43–60. doi:10.2307/1146571. JSTOR 1146571.Oren, Michel (1993). "Anti-Art as the End of Cultural History". Performing Arts Journal. 15 (2): 1–30. doi:10.2307/3245708. JSTOR 3245708. S2CID 195053017.Brecht, George; Robinson, Julia (2005). George Brecht: Events – Eine Heterospektive (in German). Cologne: Museum Ludwig and Buchhandlung Walther König.Rush, Michael (2005). New Media in Art. London: Thames & Hudson.Smith, Owen (1998). Fluxus: The History of an Attitude. San Diego: San Diego State University Press.