Virtual reality (VR) is a simulated environment utilizing three-dimensional head-mounted displays and pose-tracking technology to provide users with an immersive perception of a virtual domain. Its applications encompass entertainment, particularly video gaming; educational contexts, including medical, safety, and military training; research endeavors; and various business functions, such as virtual conferencing.
Contemporary virtual reality systems typically employ either dedicated headsets or multi-projected environments to produce realistic visual, auditory, and other sensory stimuli, thereby simulating a user's physical presence within a digital realm. Users equipped with VR apparatus can navigate, observe, and engage with virtual elements and objects within this simulated world. This immersive effect is frequently achieved via VR headsets, which incorporate a head-mounted display with a screen positioned before the eyes, though it can also be realized through purpose-built rooms featuring multiple large display surfaces. While primarily integrating auditory and visual feedback, virtual reality can also facilitate additional sensory and force feedback mechanisms through haptic technologies.
Virtual reality represents a pivotal technology within the reality-virtuality continuum. Consequently, it distinguishes itself from other digital visualization methodologies, including augmented virtuality and augmented reality.
Etymology
The term "virtual" has conveyed the meaning of "existing in essence or effect, rather than in actuality or fact" since the mid-15th century. In a computational context, the word "virtual" has denoted "not physically present but rendered perceptible by software" since 1959.
In 1938, the French avant-garde dramatist Antonin Artaud characterized the illusory quality of theatrical characters and objects as "la réalité virtuelle" within his essay collection, Le Théâtre et son double. The subsequent English translation of this work, released in 1958 under the title The Theater and its Double, represents the earliest documented publication employing the phrase "virtual reality." The designation "artificial reality," attributed to Myron Krueger, has been in circulation since the 1970s. The phrase "virtual reality" also appeared in a science fiction narrative for the first time in Damien Broderick's 1982 novel, The Judas Mandala.
The broad dissemination of the term "virtual reality" within popular media is often ascribed to Jaron Lanier, who, in the late 1980s, developed pioneering commercial-grade virtual reality hardware through his company VPL Research, and to the 1992 film Lawnmower Man, which prominently depicted virtual reality systems.
Forms and methods
Simulation-based virtual reality constitutes one approach to implementing virtual reality. For instance, driving simulators create the perception of operating a vehicle by forecasting vehicular movement based on driver input and delivering congruent visual, kinesthetic, and auditory stimuli.
Avatar image-based virtual reality enables individuals to enter a virtual environment either as a live video feed or as an avatar. Participation in a three-dimensional distributed virtual environment can thus take the form of either a traditional avatar or a real-time video representation. Users retain the flexibility to choose their mode of engagement, contingent upon the system's capabilities.
Within projector-based virtual reality, the accurate modeling of real-world environments is crucial for diverse applications, such as robotic navigation, architectural modeling, and aircraft simulation. Image-based virtual reality systems have garnered increasing interest within the computer graphics and computer vision disciplines. For the creation of realistic models, precise registration of acquired three-dimensional data is imperative; typically, a camera is employed for the close-range modeling of smaller objects.
Desktop-based virtual reality entails the presentation of a three-dimensional virtual world on a standard desktop monitor, without requiring specialized VR positional tracking hardware. Numerous contemporary first-person video games exemplify this approach, employing diverse triggers, responsive characters, and other interactive elements to foster a sense of presence within a virtual environment. A frequent critique of this immersion method is the absence of peripheral vision, which restricts the user's awareness of their surroundings.
A head-mounted display (HMD) enhances user immersion within a virtual environment. A typical virtual reality headset incorporates two compact, high-resolution OLED or LCD monitors, delivering distinct images to each eye for stereoscopic graphics, thereby rendering a three-dimensional virtual world. It also features a binaural audio system and real-time positional and rotational head tracking, enabling six degrees of freedom. Optional components may include motion controllers with haptic feedback, facilitating intuitive physical interaction within the virtual world with minimal abstraction, and an omnidirectional treadmill, which grants greater physical mobility, allowing users to perform locomotive actions in any direction.
Augmented reality (AR) represents a category of virtual reality technology that integrates digital content, generated by computer software, with the user's perception of their actual surroundings. These supplementary software-generated images, combined with the virtual scene, generally augment the appearance of the real environment. AR systems project virtual information onto a live camera feed, which can be viewed via a headset, smartglasses, or a mobile device, enabling the user to perceive three-dimensional images.
Mixed reality (MR) involves the fusion of real and virtual environments, creating novel settings and visual representations where both physical and digital objects can co-exist and interact synchronously.
Cyberspace is occasionally conceptualized as a networked form of virtual reality.
Simulated reality refers to a hypothetical virtual reality that offers an immersion level comparable to actual reality, potentially providing an advanced, lifelike experience or even a form of virtual permanence.
History
The evolution of perspective in Renaissance European art and the stereoscope, invented by Sir Charles Wheatstone, are recognized as foundational precursors to virtual reality. Initial conceptualizations of modern virtual reality emerged within the realm of science fiction.
20th century
In the 1950s, Morton Heilig conceptualized an "Experience Theatre" designed to effectively engage all human senses, thereby immersing the viewer in the on-screen narrative. He subsequently constructed a prototype of this concept, named the Sensorama, in 1962. This mechanical device, predating digital computing, featured five short films intended for multi-sensory display, incorporating sight, sound, smell, and touch. Heilig also devised the "Telesphere Mask," patented in 1960. Its patent application characterized the apparatus as "a telescopic television apparatus for individual use... The spectator is given a complete sensation of reality, i.e., moving three-dimensional images that may be in color, with 100% peripheral vision, binaural sound, scents, and air breezes."
In 1968, Harvard Professor Ivan Sutherland, assisted by his students, including Bob Sproull, developed what is widely regarded as the inaugural head-mounted display system for immersive simulation, known as The Sword of Damocles. This system exhibited rudimentary user interface and visual realism. The HMD was exceptionally heavy, necessitating suspension from the ceiling, a characteristic that contributed to its imposing appearance and namesake. From a technical standpoint, the device functioned as an augmented reality system due to its optical passthrough capability. The virtual environment's graphics consisted of basic wire-frame models of rooms.
1970–1990
Between 1970 and 1990, the virtual reality industry primarily supplied VR devices for specialized applications, including medical procedures, flight simulation, automotive design, and military training.
From 1977 to 1984, David Em pioneered the creation of navigable virtual worlds as the first artist to do so at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). Concurrently, in 1978, MIT developed The Aspen Movie Map, an early virtual tour allowing users to navigate the streets of Aspen through three distinct modes: summer, winter, and polygons.
In 1979, Eric Howlett introduced the Large Expanse, Extra Perspective (LEEP) optical system. This integrated system generated a stereoscopic image with a sufficiently broad field-of-view to evoke a compelling perception of spatial depth. Users consistently reported being impressed by the profound sense of depth and realism conveyed by the system. The initial LEEP system underwent redesign in 1985 by Scott Fisher for NASA's Ames Research Center, where it was incorporated into their first virtual reality installation, the Virtual Interactive Environment Workstation (VIEW). The LEEP system subsequently served as the foundational technology for the majority of early virtual reality headsets.
By the late 1980s, the term "virtual reality" gained widespread recognition through Jaron Lanier, a prominent pioneer in the domain. Lanier established VPL Research in 1984, which subsequently developed several pioneering virtual reality devices, including the DataGlove, the EyePhone, the Reality Built For Two (RB2), and the AudioSphere. The DataGlove technology was licensed by VPL to Mattel, leading to the creation of the Power Glove, an early and accessible virtual reality peripheral launched in 1989. Concurrently, Broderbund introduced its U-Force peripheral.
In 1982, Atari, Inc. established a dedicated research laboratory focused on virtual reality. However, this facility ceased operations after two years, a consequence of the 1983 video game industry downturn. Despite the closure, several of its former employees, including Scott Fisher, Michael Naimark, and Brenda Laurel, continued their independent research and development efforts in VR-related technologies.
The Cyberspace Project at Autodesk, initiated in 1988, achieved the pioneering implementation of virtual reality on an economical personal computer. In 1990, project leader Eric Gullichsen departed to establish Sense8 Corporation, where he developed the WorldToolKit virtual reality SDK. This software development kit was notable for providing the first real-time graphics with texture mapping capabilities on a personal computer, subsequently gaining extensive adoption across industrial and academic sectors.
The 1990s
The 1990s marked the advent of the initial widespread commercial releases of consumer-oriented virtual reality headsets. For example, in 1992, Computer Gaming World projected the availability of "affordable VR by 1994".
In 1991, Sega unveiled the Sega VR headset, designed for its Mega Drive home console. This device incorporated LCD screens within its visor, stereo headphones, and inertial sensors, enabling the system to monitor and respond to the user's head movements. Concurrently, Virtuality debuted as the inaugural mass-produced, networked, multiplayer virtual reality entertainment system, distributed across numerous countries and featuring a dedicated VR arcade at the Embarcadero Center. Each multi-pod Virtuality system, priced at up to $73,000, included headsets and exoskeleton gloves, providing one of the earliest truly immersive virtual reality experiences.
During the same year, Carolina Cruz-Neira, Daniel J. Sandin, and Thomas A. DeFanti, affiliated with the Electronic Visualization Laboratory, developed the first cubic immersive room, designated as the Cave Automatic Virtual Environment (CAVE). This innovation, originating from Cruz-Neira's doctoral thesis, comprised a multi-projected environment reminiscent of a holodeck, enabling participants to perceive their own bodies in spatial relation to others within the simulated space. Separately, Antonio Medina, an MIT alumnus and NASA scientist, engineered a virtual reality system intended for the teleoperation of Mars rovers from Earth, aiming for apparent real-time control despite the significant signal latency between Mars and Earth.
In 1992, Nicole Stenger produced Angels, recognized as the inaugural real-time interactive immersive film, with user interaction mediated by a dataglove and high-resolution goggles. Concurrently, Louis Rosenberg developed the virtual fixtures system at the U.S. Air Force's Armstrong Labs. This system utilized a full upper-body exoskeleton to facilitate a physically realistic mixed reality in three dimensions. It allowed for the precise overlay of physically real 3D virtual objects onto a user's direct perception of the actual environment, thereby generating the first genuine augmented reality experience encompassing visual, auditory, and haptic feedback.
By July 1994, Sega had introduced the VR-1 motion simulator ride attraction within its Joypolis indoor theme parks, alongside the Dennou Senki Net Merc arcade game. Both installations employed an advanced head-mounted display, designated the "Mega Visor Display," which was co-developed with Virtuality. This display facilitated 360-degree stereoscopic 3D head tracking, and in its Net Merc iteration, it was powered by the Sega Model 1 arcade system board. Concurrently, Apple launched QuickTime VR; however, despite its nomenclature, this technology did not constitute true virtual reality but rather presented interactive 360-degree panoramic views.
Nintendo's Virtual Boy console debuted in 1995. In Seattle, a collective of entrepreneurs, Chet Dagit and Bob Jacobson, developed and publicly demonstrated the Virtual Environment Theater, a 270-degree immersive projection room akin to a CAVE system. That same year, Forte introduced the VFX1, a virtual reality headset powered by a personal computer.
In 1999, entrepreneur Philip Rosedale established Linden Lab, initially concentrating on virtual reality (VR) hardware development. The company's early efforts to commercialize "The Rig" proved challenging; its prototype manifested as an unwieldy steel device featuring multiple computer monitors designed to be worn on the user's shoulders. This foundational concept was subsequently refined into the personal computer-based, three-dimensional virtual world application, Second Life.
The 21st Century
2000–2010
During the decade spanning 2000 to 2010, commercially available virtual reality technologies encountered a notable lack of public interest and investment.
In 2001, the SAS Cube (SAS3), recognized as the inaugural PC-based cubic room, was developed collaboratively by Z-A Production (Maurice Benayoun, David Nahon), Barco, and Clarté. This system was deployed in Laval, France, and its underlying SAS library subsequently led to the creation of Virtools VRPack. Later, in 2007, Google launched Street View, a service providing panoramic perspectives of numerous global locations, encompassing roads, interior building spaces, and rural environments. A stereoscopic 3D mode was integrated into this service in 2010.
2010–Present
In 2010, Palmer Luckey engineered the initial prototype of the Oculus Rift. Constructed upon the chassis of an existing virtual reality headset, this early iteration offered only rotational tracking. Nevertheless, it featured an unprecedented 90-degree field of vision for the consumer market at that juncture. Luckey addressed distortion artifacts, which typically resulted from the wide-angle lenses employed, by implementing software that pre-distorted the rendered image in real-time. This foundational design subsequently informed later iterations. John Carmack publicly introduced the Rift at the E3 video game trade show in 2012. In 2014, Facebook (now Meta) acquired Oculus VR for an initially reported sum of $2 billion, though the actual figure was later disclosed as $3 billion. This acquisition transpired after the shipment of the first development kits, funded via Oculus's 2012 Kickstarter campaign in 2013, but prior to the distribution of their second development kits in 2014. ZeniMax, Carmack's former employer, initiated legal action against Oculus and Facebook, alleging the misappropriation of company secrets; the court ruled in favor of ZeniMax, with the case subsequently settled out of court.
In 2013, Valve made a significant advancement by discovering and openly sharing the technology of low-persistence displays, which enabled lag-free and smear-free rendering of virtual reality content. Oculus subsequently integrated this innovation into all its forthcoming headsets. Early in 2014, Valve unveiled its SteamSight prototype, which served as the precursor to both consumer headsets launched in 2016. This prototype incorporated key features later found in consumer models, such as independent 1K displays for each eye, low persistence, expansive area positional tracking, and Fresnel lenses. In 2015, HTC and Valve jointly announced the HTC Vive virtual reality headset and its accompanying controllers. This system featured Lighthouse tracking technology, which employed wall-mounted "base stations" to achieve positional tracking via infrared light.
In 2014, Sony introduced Project Morpheus, the codename for its PlayStation VR, a virtual reality headset designed for the PlayStation 4 video game console. Concurrently, the Chinese AntVR headset debuted in late 2014, achieving temporary competitiveness within the Chinese market before ultimately succumbing to the dominance of larger technology corporations. The following year, 2015, saw Google's introduction of Cardboard, a DIY stereoscopic viewer where users insert their smartphone into a head-mounted cardboard enclosure. Michael Naimark was appointed as Google's inaugural 'resident artist' within its newly established VR division. Furthermore, the Kickstarter campaign for Gloveone, a pair of gloves offering motion tracking and haptic feedback, successfully secured over $150,000 in funding. Also in 2015, Razer launched its open-source initiative, OSVR.
By 2016, the virtual reality sector comprised at least 230 companies engaged in developing VR-related products. Major technology entities, including Amazon, Apple, Facebook, Google, Microsoft, Sony, and Samsung, had each established dedicated augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) divisions. Dynamic binaural audio became a prevalent feature across most headsets released that year. Conversely, haptic interfaces remained underdeveloped, with the majority of hardware packages relying on button-operated handsets for tactile interaction. From a visual perspective, display resolutions and frame rates were still sufficiently limited that rendered images retained a discernible virtual quality.
In 2016, HTC launched its first units of the HTC Vive SteamVR headset. This represented a significant commercial debut for sensor-based tracking technology, enabling unrestricted user mobility within a designated area. Concurrently, a 2017 patent application by Sony indicated the company's pursuit of comparable location tracking technology for PlayStation VR, suggesting the potential for a wireless headset.
In 2019, Oculus introduced the Oculus Rift S and a standalone headset, the Oculus Quest. These headsets distinguished themselves by employing inside-out tracking, a departure from the external outside-in tracking prevalent in earlier headset generations.
Later in 2019, Valve unveiled the Valve Index. Distinguishing characteristics included a 130° field of view, off-ear headphones designed for enhanced immersion and user comfort, open-handed controllers facilitating individual finger tracking, front-facing cameras, and a front expansion slot designed for future extensibility.
In 2020, Oculus introduced the Oculus Quest 2, subsequently rebranded as the Meta Quest 2. Noteworthy enhancements comprised a higher-resolution display, a more accessible price point, and improved performance. Initially, Facebook, which transitioned to Meta the following year, mandated a Facebook account login for headset activation. By 2021, the Oculus Quest 2 constituted 80% of all virtual reality headset sales.
In 2021, EASA granted approval for the inaugural Virtual Reality-based Flight Simulation Training Device (FSTD). Developed by Loft Dynamics for rotorcraft pilots, this device significantly enhances safety by enabling the practice of high-risk maneuvers within a simulated environment. This innovation directly addresses a critical hazard in rotorcraft operations, given that approximately 20% of accidents are statistically linked to training flights.
In 2022, Meta unveiled the Meta Quest Pro. This device featured a more slender, visor-like design that was not fully enclosed and marked Meta's initial foray into mixed reality applications, leveraging high-resolution color video passthrough. Additional features comprised integrated face and eye tracking, pancake lenses, and enhanced Touch Pro controllers equipped with integrated motion tracking.
In 2023, Sony launched the PlayStation VR2, as the successor to its 2016 predecessor. Key specifications encompassed inside-out tracking, eye-tracked foveated rendering, higher-resolution OLED displays, controllers featuring adaptive triggers and haptic feedback, 3D audio, and an expanded field of view. Although initially exclusive to the PlayStation 5 console, a PC adapter became available in August 2024.
Later in 2023, Meta introduced the Meta Quest 3, succeeding the Quest 2. It incorporated the pancake lenses and mixed reality functionalities of the Quest Pro, alongside an expanded field of view and enhanced resolution relative to the Quest 2. In October 2024, Meta also launched the Meta Quest 3S, a more affordable entry-level headset, which retained the Fresnel lenses of the Quest 2 and featured a reduced resolution of 1832x1920, contrasting with the Quest 3's 2064x2208.
In 2024, Apple unveiled the Apple Vision Pro. This fully enclosed mixed reality headset heavily leverages video passthrough technology. Although it supports certain VR experiences, it deviates from conventional VR headsets by omitting features like external controllers or OpenXR support, instead being marketed as a "spatial computer".
In 2024, the Federal Aviation Administration granted approval for its inaugural virtual reality flight simulation training device (FSTD). Specifically, this was Loft Dynamics' virtual reality Airbus Helicopters H125 FSTD, which had previously received qualification from EASA. As of September 2024, Loft Dynamics holds the distinction of being the sole VR FSTD qualified by both EASA and the FAA.
Technology
Hardware
Contemporary virtual reality headset displays leverage technologies initially developed for smartphones, encompassing: gyroscopes and motion sensors for precise head, body, and hand position tracking; compact high-definition screens for stereoscopic visualization; and miniature, lightweight, high-speed computer processors. The integration of these components contributed to increased affordability for independent VR developers, culminating in the 2012 Oculus Rift Kickstarter campaign, which introduced the first independently developed VR headset.
The proliferation of affordable omnidirectional cameras, often termed 360-degree or VR cameras, has facilitated a rise in independent production of virtual reality imagery and video. These devices capture interactive 360-degree photography, albeit frequently at lower resolutions or in highly compressed formats optimized for online streaming. Conversely, photogrammetry is progressively employed to synthesize multiple high-resolution photographs, thereby generating intricate 3D objects and environments for VR applications.
Achieving a sense of immersion in virtual worlds necessitates specialized output devices, such as head-mounted displays or CAVE systems. To convey a spatial impression, stereo projection is utilized, involving the generation and display of two distinct images from differing perspectives. Various technologies exist to deliver the appropriate image to each eye, broadly categorized into active methods (e.g., shutter glasses) and passive methods (e.g., polarizing filters or Infitec).
To enhance the immersive experience, wearable multi-string cables provide haptic feedback for complex geometries within virtual reality. These strings enable precise control over each finger joint, simulating the tactile sensations associated with interacting with these virtual objects.
Interaction within virtual environments mandates specialized input devices, prominently including motion controllers and optical tracking sensors; wired gloves are also employed in certain scenarios. Controllers commonly leverage optical tracking systems, primarily infrared cameras, for precise localization and navigation, enabling unencumbered user movement. Certain input devices incorporate force feedback mechanisms, delivering haptic sensations to the hands or other body parts. This haptic and sensor-based feedback serves as an additional sensory input, facilitating user orientation within the three-dimensional virtual world and enabling realistic simulations, thereby providing the viewer with a sense of direction within the simulated landscape. Further haptic feedback can be derived from omnidirectional treadmills, which translate real walking movements into virtual locomotion, and from vibration gloves and suits.
Virtual reality cameras facilitate the creation of VR photography through 360-degree panoramic videos. These cameras are available in diverse configurations, featuring varying numbers of integrated lenses.
Software
The Virtual Reality Modelling Language (VRML), initially introduced in 1994, was designed for the development of "virtual worlds" independent of headset requirements. Subsequently, the Web3D consortium was established in 1997 to develop industry standards for web-based 3D graphics. This consortium later evolved VRML into X3D, an archival, open-source standard for the web-based distribution of VR content. WebVR represents an experimental JavaScript application programming interface (API) that supports various virtual reality devices, including the HTC Vive, Oculus Rift, Google Cardboard, and OSVR, within a web browser environment.
Visual Immersion Experience
Display Resolution
The Minimal Angle of Resolution (MAR) quantifies the smallest discernible distance between two display pixels. At a given viewing distance, MAR indicates the point at which an observer can clearly differentiate individual pixels. Often measured in arc-seconds, MAR is inversely related to viewing distance. For the general population, typical spatial resolution, when combined with distance, ranges from approximately 30 to 65 arc-seconds. Consequently, at viewing distances of 1 meter and 2 meters, respectively, an average observer will not perceive two pixels as distinct if their separation is less than 0.29 mm at 1 meter or less than 0.58 mm at 2 meters.
Image Latency and Display Refresh Frequency
Most compact displays operate at a 60 Hz refresh rate, which introduces an additional latency of approximately 15 milliseconds. This latency is reduced to less than 7 milliseconds when the refresh rate is increased to 120 Hz or even 240 Hz and beyond. Consequently, participants generally report a more immersive experience with higher refresh rates, although these necessitate more powerful graphics processing units.
Relationship Between Display and Field of View
When evaluating the immersive quality of a virtual reality (VR) device, its field of view (FOV) must be considered alongside image quality. The human eye possesses a horizontal FOV ranging from approximately 107-110 degrees temporally to 60-70 degrees nasally, and a vertical FOV extending about 95 degrees downward and 85 degrees upward. Eye movements are estimated to contribute approximately 30 degrees horizontally and 20 degrees vertically to the overall visual field. Binocular vision is restricted to the 120-140 degree overlap between the right and left visual fields. Incorporating eye movements, the combined FOV for both eyes is approximately 300 degrees by 175 degrees, representing roughly one-third of a full 360-degree sphere.
Applications
Virtual reality (VR) finds its primary applications in entertainment, encompassing video games, 3D cinema, amusement park attractions such as dark rides, and social virtual environments. Consumer VR headsets initially emerged from video game companies in the early to mid-1990s. The 2010s marked the release of next-generation commercial tethered headsets by manufacturers like Oculus (Rift), HTC (Vive), and Sony (PlayStation VR), which initiated a new phase of application development. 3D cinema has been utilized for various content, including sporting events, pornography, fine art, music videos, and short films. Since 2015, roller coasters and theme parks have integrated VR to synchronize visual effects with haptic feedback. VR not only aligns with the prevailing trends of the digital industry but also significantly enhances cinematic visual effects, offering audiences expanded interactive possibilities through this technology.
Within the social sciences and psychology, virtual reality provides an economical instrument for investigating and replicating interactions within controlled settings. It also serves as a therapeutic intervention, exemplified by virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET). VRET is a specialized form of exposure therapy designed for the treatment of anxiety disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and various phobias.
A specific VR therapy has been developed to assist individuals with psychosis and agoraphobia in addressing their avoidance behaviors related to external environments. During this therapy, the user wears a headset while a virtual character offers psychological guidance and directs them through simulated settings, such as a cafe or a bustling street. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) is currently evaluating this therapy for potential recommendation within the National Health Service (NHS).
During the COVID-19 pandemic, social VR was additionally employed as a mental health intervention, specifically as a form of self-administered, non-traditional cognitive behavioral therapy.
Virtual reality programs are integrated into rehabilitation protocols for elderly individuals diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. This enables these patients to simulate real-world experiences that would otherwise be inaccessible due to their condition. Furthermore, 17 recent randomized controlled trials have demonstrated the efficacy of virtual reality applications in addressing cognitive deficits associated with various neurological diagnoses. The loss of mobility often experienced by elderly patients can contribute to feelings of loneliness and depression. In this context, virtual reality can facilitate aging in place by providing a connection to an external world that they might otherwise find difficult to navigate. Additionally, virtual reality offers a secure environment for conducting exposure therapy.
In the medical field, simulated VR surgical environments were initially developed during the 1990s. Under expert supervision, VR offers cost-effective and repeatable training, enabling trainees to identify and rectify errors in real-time.
Virtual reality has been employed in physical rehabilitation since the 2000s. However, despite numerous investigations, robust evidence regarding its efficacy for treating Parkinson's disease, particularly when compared to other rehabilitation methods that do not require sophisticated and expensive equipment, remains limited. A 2018 review examining the effectiveness of mirror therapy, utilizing virtual reality and robotics across various pathologies, reached comparable conclusions. Furthermore, another study demonstrated VR's potential to facilitate mimicry and highlighted distinctions between non-autistic and autistic individuals in their responses to a two-dimensional avatar.
Immersive virtual reality (VR) technology, incorporating myoelectric and motion tracking control, shows promise as a therapeutic option for refractory phantom limb pain. Researchers developed an interactive 3D kitchen environment, based on mirror therapy principles, enabling users to control virtual hands while wearing a motion-tracked VR headset; pain scale measurements were also considered. A systematic search of PubMed and Embase identified studies, with results subsequently pooled into two meta-analyses. One meta-analysis indicated a significant positive outcome for VR therapy in improving balance.
Within the dynamic and globalized business landscape, virtual reality (VR) meetings facilitate environments where interactions with colleagues, customers, and partners can feel more authentic than traditional phone calls or video chats. Participants can convene in customizable virtual meeting rooms using VR headsets, interacting as if co-located in the same physical space. These platforms allow for the uploading and interactive display of presentations, videos, or 3D models, such as product prototypes. Research indicates that avatar-based interactions within 3D virtual environments foster greater consensus, satisfaction, and cohesion among group members compared to conventional text-based computer-mediated communication.
Virtual reality (VR) offers simulation capabilities for real-world workspaces, serving purposes in occupational safety and health, education, and training. This technology provides learners with virtual environments to develop skills without incurring real-world consequences of errors. Its applications span diverse fields, including primary education, anatomy instruction, military and astronaut training, flight simulation, mining and metallurgical operations training, medical education, geography education, architectural design, driver training, and bridge inspection. Immersive VR engineering systems allow engineers to visualize virtual prototypes before physical models are available. Integrating virtual training environments is posited to enhance realism in military and healthcare training while simultaneously reducing costs, for instance, by minimizing ammunition expenditure during military exercises. VR is also utilized for healthcare training and education for medical practitioners. Furthermore, numerous applications have emerged for various types of safety training. Recent findings suggest that VR-based safety training surpasses traditional methods in terms of knowledge acquisition and retention.
Within the engineering discipline, virtual reality (VR) has demonstrated significant utility for both educators and students. Previously a costly educational resource, VR has become more accessible due to reduced overall expenses, proving to be an invaluable instrument for training future engineers. A key advantage is students' capacity to interact with 3D models that accurately simulate real-world responses. This educational tool provides the necessary immersion for comprehending complex topics and applying theoretical knowledge. Consequently, aspiring architects and engineers greatly benefit from developing an understanding of spatial relationships and formulating solutions grounded in future real-world applications.
The inaugural fine art virtual world emerged in the 1970s. Technological advancements throughout the 1990s led to the creation of more artistic programs, including feature films. With the broader commercial availability of VR technology, virtual reality festivals started appearing in the mid-2010s. Museums first adopted VR in the 1990s, with a notable increase in its application observed by the mid-2010s. Furthermore, museums have initiated efforts to make some of their content accessible via virtual reality.
The expanding market for virtual reality (VR) offers both an opportunity and an alternative channel for digital marketing. VR is also perceived as an emerging platform for e-commerce, particularly in its potential to disrupt traditional brick-and-mortar retail models. Nevertheless, a 2018 study indicated that the majority of consumer goods continue to be purchased in physical retail establishments.
In educational contexts, virtual reality applications have demonstrated the capacity to foster higher-order thinking, enhance student interest and engagement, facilitate knowledge acquisition, and cultivate mental habits and comprehension beneficial within an academic framework.
The integration of virtual reality (VR) technology into public libraries has been advocated to provide patrons with access to advanced technology and distinctive educational opportunities. Such applications could encompass virtual, interactive access to rare texts and artifacts, as well as immersive tours of notable landmarks and archaeological sites, exemplified by initiatives like the Virtual Ganjali Khan Project.
Since the early 2020s, virtual reality has been explored as a technological environment potentially aiding the grieving process through digital recreations of deceased individuals. This application gained significant media prominence in 2021 after a South Korean television documentary featured a grieving mother interacting with a virtual replica of her deceased daughter. Researchers have since outlined various implications of such undertakings, noting both the potential for facilitating adaptive mourning and numerous associated ethical complexities.
The increasing interest in the metaverse has spurred organizational initiatives to integrate the diverse applications of virtual reality into comprehensive ecosystems, such as VIVERSE, which reportedly offers cross-platform connectivity for various functionalities.
Virtual reality has found growing utility across diverse religious applications, notably in the development of metaverse-based places of worship.
Medical Applications of Virtual Reality
Virtual reality (VR) technology has become a crucial instrument in medical education and training. Significant advancements have occurred in surgical simulation and real-time surgical augmentation. Research conducted at medical institutions in North Carolina indicates that VR training enhances technical performance and skills among both medical students and practicing surgeons, particularly in procedures like total hip arthroplasty, when compared to conventional training methods. Concurrently, other VR simulation platforms, such as LapSim, contribute to improving fundamental coordination, instrument manipulation, and procedure-specific proficiencies. These simulations are designed to offer robust feedback and haptic interaction, thereby providing a more authentic surgical experience.
Investigations reveal substantial improvements in task completion times and performance scores following four-week training regimens utilizing LapSim. This simulated environment additionally enables surgeons to practice procedures without endangering actual patients, thereby enhancing patient safety.
Data derived from research conducted by University Hospitals Schleswig-Holstein, in collaboration with other institutions, indicates that both medical students and experienced surgeons exhibit notable performance enhancements after engaging in practice sessions with LapSim VR technology.
A recent study conducted at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill demonstrated that the development of integrated Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) systems enables surgeons to maintain visual focus on a patient while simultaneously accessing CT scans. This particular VR system facilitates laparoscopic imaging integration, real-time visualization of skin layers, and improved surgical precision.
These instances exemplify how research indicates that surgeons can leverage supplementary virtual reality simulation practices, which offer immersive experiences, customizable scenarios, and autonomous learning opportunities with haptic feedback. For educational efficacy, these VR systems must achieve a sufficient level of realism while also providing metrics for assessing a surgeon's performance.
Future challenges for this technology include enhancing the complexity of scenarios in conjunction with improving realism. These systems will require the incorporation of stress-inducing elements and other advanced simulation concepts. Moreover, improved Augmented Reality (AR) integration will be necessary to provide surgeons with more precise, eyes-on guidance. Finally, maintaining cost-effectiveness and ensuring widespread availability will be crucial considerations.
Virtual Reality in Concerts
In June 2020, Jean Michel Jarre performed in VRChat. The following month, Brendan Bradley launched FutureStages, a complimentary web-based virtual reality platform designed for live events and concerts during the 2020 shutdown. Justin Bieber subsequently performed on WaveXR on November 18, 2021. On December 2, 2021, non-player characters engaged with a live performer at the Mugar Omni Theater, with the experience presented in both virtual reality and projected onto the IMAX dome screen. Meta's Foo Fighters Super Bowl VR concert was hosted on Venues, where Post Malone also performed beginning July 15, 2022. Megan Thee Stallion conducted performances on AMAZE at AMC Theaters throughout 2022.
Billie Eilish performed on Oculus Venues on October 24, 2021, followed by a performance from the pop group Imagine Dragons on June 15, 2022.
Concerns and Challenges
Health and Safety Implications
Virtual reality technology presents numerous health and safety considerations, with prolonged usage potentially inducing various adverse symptoms that may impede its widespread adoption. Most virtual reality systems include consumer warnings addressing risks such as seizures, developmental issues in children, fall and collision hazards, general discomfort, repetitive stress injuries, and interference with medical devices. Some individuals may experience involuntary twitches, seizures, or blackouts during VR headset use, even without a prior history of epilepsy or similar incidents. Approximately 0.025% of users, or one in 4,000, may encounter these symptoms. The most common short-term adverse effects include motion sickness, eyestrain, headaches, and general discomfort. Furthermore, the substantial weight of VR headsets can exacerbate discomfort, particularly for children, leading to recommendations against their use by minors. Additional risks involve physical interactions with the real environment; users wearing VR headsets often lose awareness of their surroundings, increasing the potential for injuries from tripping or colliding with physical objects.
VR headsets, like other screened technologies, can regularly induce eye fatigue due to a reduced blinking rate during screen viewing, leading to ocular dryness. While concerns exist regarding VR headsets contributing to myopia, their proximity to the eyes does not necessarily cause nearsightedness, provided the displayed image's focal length is sufficiently distant.
Virtual reality sickness, also termed cybersickness, manifests when exposure to a virtual environment elicits symptoms akin to motion sickness. Women exhibit a significantly higher susceptibility to headset-induced symptoms than men, with prevalence rates of approximately 77% and 33%, respectively. Common symptoms encompass general discomfort, headaches, stomach awareness, nausea, vomiting, pallor, sweating, fatigue, drowsiness, disorientation, and apathy. Historically, Nintendo's Virtual Boy garnered substantial criticism for its negative physical effects, including reported dizziness, nausea, and headaches. These motion sickness symptoms arise from a sensory mismatch between visual input and the body's proprioceptive and vestibular perceptions. When the vestibular system, responsible for internal balance, does not register the motion anticipated from visual cues, users may experience VR sickness. This phenomenon can also be exacerbated by insufficient frame rates in VR systems or a latency between physical movement and the corresponding on-screen visual response. Given that approximately 25–40% of individuals experience some form of VR sickness, companies are actively pursuing strategies to mitigate these effects.
The vergence-accommodation conflict (VAC) is recognized as a primary contributor to virtual reality sickness.
In January 2022, The Wall Street Journal reported that VR usage could result in physical injuries, including those affecting the legs, hands, arms, and shoulders. Furthermore, VR use has been associated with incidents leading to neck injuries, particularly involving the cervical vertebrae.
Children and Adolescents in Virtual Reality
Awareness of virtual reality among children in the USA has significantly increased, with the proportion of those unfamiliar with the technology decreasing by half from 40% in Autumn 2016 to 19% in Spring 2017.
A 2022 research report by Piper Sandler indicated that merely 26% of U.S. teens possess a virtual reality device, with only 5% reporting daily usage, and nearly half (48%) of these adolescent owners rarely engage with their devices. Among adolescents who do not currently own a VR headset, 9% expressed an intention to acquire one. Furthermore, half of the surveyed teenagers reported either uncertainty or a complete lack of interest in the metaverse, consequently having no plans for a VR headset purchase.
Research indicates that younger individuals may exhibit distinct cognitive and behavioral responses to immersive virtual reality compared to adult populations. Virtual reality technology immerses users directly within digital content, which can render the experience exceptionally vivid and authentic for children. Specifically, participants aged 6–18 years reported a greater sense of presence and perceived "realness" within virtual environments when contrasted with adults aged 19–65 years.
Given the accessibility of virtual reality content, including pornography and violent material, there is a critical need for research into VR consumer behavior, its impact on children, and the development of ethical guidelines for underage users. Analogous studies concerning violence in video games propose that exposure to violent media can influence attitudes, behavioral patterns, and even an individual's self-concept. Self-concept serves as a crucial determinant of fundamental attitudes and adaptive capacities, especially during adolescence. Preliminary investigations comparing observation with participation in violent VR games indicate that physiological arousal and aggressive cognitions, though not hostile emotions, are more pronounced in active participants than in passive observers of the virtual reality experience.
Children's engagement with virtual reality may additionally necessitate the simultaneous cognitive processing of both the virtual and physical environments. Overuse of immersive technologies, characterized by highly prominent sensory attributes, could potentially impair children's capacity to adhere to the conventions of the physical world, especially when a VR headset obscures the actual location of objects. Immersive VR offers users multisensory experiences capable of replicating reality or generating scenarios that are either impractical or hazardous in the physical realm. Initial observations of ten children engaging with VR indicated that those aged 8–12 years demonstrated greater confidence in exploring virtual content within familiar contexts, such as enjoying gameplay in the kitchen environment of Job Simulator. Furthermore, they exhibited enjoyment in violating real-world rules by participating in prohibited activities, such as igniting objects.
Privacy Considerations
Virtual reality platforms have raised significant digital privacy concerns. The inherent and continuous tracking mechanisms integral to all VR systems render this technology both highly effective for and susceptible to mass surveillance, encompassing the collection of data on personal actions, movements, and reactions. Furthermore, data derived from eye-tracking sensors, anticipated to be a ubiquitous feature in future virtual reality headsets, could inadvertently disclose sensitive information regarding a user's ethnicity, personality attributes, anxieties, emotional states, interests, proficiencies, and overall physical and mental well-being.
The intrinsic design of virtual reality technology facilitates the collection of extensive user data. This encompasses readily apparent details such as usernames and account credentials, yet also extends to more intimate data, including physical locomotion, interaction patterns, and reactions within virtual settings. Moreover, sophisticated VR systems are capable of acquiring biometric data, such as vocal characteristics, ocular movements, and physiological responses elicited by VR experiences. Since its inception, virtual reality technology has undergone substantial expansion, transitioning from a specialized niche to a widely adopted consumer product. Concomitant with the growth of its user base, there has been a proportional increase in the volume of personal data amassed by these systems. Such data serves various purposes, including enhancing VR system performance, delivering tailored user experiences, or compiling demographic insights for commercial marketing. Nevertheless, these practices engender considerable privacy concerns, particularly when such data is retained, disseminated, or monetized without the explicit informed consent of the user.
Current data protection and privacy legislation, such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in the European Union and the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) in the United States, are applicable to virtual reality environments. These frameworks mandate that corporations disclose their data collection and utilization practices, simultaneously granting users a measure of authority over their personal data. Notwithstanding these regulatory provisions, the enforcement of privacy laws within VR contexts presents difficulties, primarily attributable to the technology's global reach and the immense volume of data it accumulates.
The historical context of privacy concerns associated with Meta Platforms (formerly Facebook, Inc.) has extended to its involvement in the virtual reality (VR) market, generating specific privacy issues related to its platforms. In August 2020, Facebook announced that all Oculus products would be governed by the terms of use and privacy policy of the Facebook social network. Furthermore, a Facebook account would become mandatory for all future Oculus headset models and existing devices, effective January 2023, through the discontinuation of the separate Oculus account system. This policy was widely criticized for its compulsory integration of Oculus headsets with Facebook's data collection practices and policies, including the real-name policy, and for potentially disabling hardware use if a user's account were suspended. Consequently, the following month, Facebook ceased Oculus product sales in Germany due to regulatory concerns regarding the policy's potential violation of the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). By 2022, the company had established a distinct "Meta account" system.
In 2024, researchers at the University of Chicago identified a security vulnerability within Meta Quest's Android-based system software. This exploit, which leveraged "Developer Mode" to inject a malicious application, enabled the acquisition of users' login credentials and the insertion of fraudulent information during online banking transactions. While this attack was deemed challenging to execute outside of controlled research environments, it exposed targeted individuals to risks such as phishing, internet fraud, and grooming.
16K resolution – Display or video resolutions characterized by a horizontal pixel count approximating 16,000.
- 16K resolution – Video or display resolutions with a width of around 16,000 pixels
- 360-degree video – A visual arts technique employing omnidirectional video capture.
- The AlloSphere Research Facility (AlloSphere) – A specialized research laboratory situated at the University of California, Santa Barbara.
- Computer-mediated reality – The capacity to manipulate an individual's perception of reality through computational means.
- Diorama – A three-dimensional model, either full-scale or miniature.
- Extended reality – An environment that integrates both real and virtual elements.
- Gustatory technology – An engineering discipline focused on the representation of taste.
- Haptic suit – A wearable device designed to deliver haptic feedback.
- Holographic principle – A fundamental principle within theoretical physics.
- Hyperreality – A conceptual term describing a cultural process involving the transformation of perceptions of reality.
- List of virtual reality headsets
- Metaverse – A collective, three-dimensional, shared virtual environment.
- Mixed reality – A form of three-dimensional computer interaction that merges the physical world with virtual objectsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets.
- MOO – A text-based online virtual reality system.
- Simulation – The imitation of a real-world process or system's operation over time.
- Virtual body – The state of existence within a computer-simulated environment.
- Virtual globe – A three-dimensional software model or representation of Earth or another celestial body.
- Virtual machining – The computational simulation and modeling of machine tool operations for manufacturing parts.
- Virtual reality in fiction
- Virtual reality in nursing – The application of virtual reality technology within the nursing profession.
- Virtual reality website
References
Cakmakci, O. Optical Design of Eyewear Displays. SPIE Press, PM388, 2025. ISBN 9781510688339.
- O. Cakmakci. Optical Design of Eyewear Displays. SPIE Press, PM388, 2025. ISBN 9781510688339. Publisher page
- Choi, SangSu; Jung, Kiwook; Noh, Sang Do (2015). "Virtual reality applications in manufacturing industries: Past research, present findings, and future directions". Concurrent Engineering. 23: 40–63. doi:10.1177/1063293X14568814.Isaac, Joseph (2016). "Step into a new world – Virtual Reality (VR)". Retrieved 2 July 2016. This resource elucidates the fundamental concepts of virtual reality and outlines associated research challenges in an accessible manner.
- Isaac, Joseph (2016). "Step into a new world – Virtual Reality (VR)". Retrieved 2 July 2016.Drummond, Katie (2014). "The Rise and Fall and Rise of Virtual Reality". The Verge. Retrieved 15 November 2014."Virtual reality in human-system interaction".Source: TORIma Academy Archive