The Canon of Medicine

The Canon of Medicine (Arabic: القانون في الطب, romanized: al-Qānūn fī l-ṭibb) is a five-volume medical encyclopedia authored by Avicenna (ابن سینا, ibn Sina) and finalized in 1025. This treatise stands as one of the most influential academic contributions of its era. It comprehensively surveys the prevailing medical understanding within the Islamic world, integrating insights from antecedent traditions such as Greco-Roman medicine (notably Galen's contributions), Persian medicine, Chinese medicine, and Indian medicine. The subsequent translation of this work from Arabic into Latin in 12th-century Toledo profoundly shaped the trajectory of medieval medical science. Consequently, it served as the foundational textbook for medical instruction in European universities throughout the early modern period.

The Canon of Medicine (Arabic: القانون في الطب, romanized: al-Qānūn fī l-ṭibb) is an encyclopedia of medicine in five books compiled by Avicenna (ابن سینا, ibn Sina) and completed in 1025. It is among the most influential works of its time. It presents an overview of the contemporary medical knowledge of the Islamic world, which had been influenced by earlier traditions including Greco-Roman medicine (particularly Galen), Persian medicine, Chinese medicine and Indian medicine. Its translation from Arabic to Latin in 12th century Toledo greatly influenced the development of medieval medicine. It became the standard textbook for teaching in European universities into the early modern period.

The Canon of Medicine maintained its authoritative status in medical discourse for several centuries. It established benchmarks for medical practice across medieval Europe and the Islamic world, functioning as a principal medical textbook in Europe until the 18th century. Furthermore, it constitutes a pivotal text within Unani medicine, a traditional medical system prevalent in India.

Title

The English designation, Canon of Medicine, originates from the prevalent medieval Latin term Canon Medicinae, which itself is a direct translation of the original Arabic القانون في الطب (al-Qānūn fī aṭ-Ṭibb), conveying an identical semantic meaning. In this context, "Canon" (frequently rendered in English as "law" or "legal code") signifies an organized system or a comprehensive, universal encyclopedia. During the medieval period, a common variant of the title was Liber Canonis.

Development

From its inception, Islamic medicine was predominantly shaped by the medical traditions established by Galen, and consequently, by Hippocrates. Avicenna endeavored to integrate these established traditions within the framework of Aristotelian natural philosophy. He commenced the composition of the Canon in Gorganj, proceeded with its development in Rey, and finalized it in Hamadan by 1025. The resultant work constituted a "clear and ordered 'summa'" encapsulating the entirety of medical knowledge available during Ibn Sīnā's era. This text offered a more succinct reference compared to Galen's extensive twenty-volume medical corpus.

Overview

The Canon of Medicine is systematically organized into five distinct books:

1. Discussions on fundamental medical and physiological principles, anatomical structures, regimen, and overarching therapeutic methodologies.
2. An alphabetically ordered compendium of medical substances, preceded by an exposition on their general characteristics.
3. Diagnostic approaches and therapeutic interventions for pathologies localized to specific bodily regions.
4. Diagnostic and treatment strategies for systemic conditions affecting multiple bodily parts or the entire organism.
5. A compendium detailing compound pharmaceutical preparations.

Books 1, 3, and 4 are further subdivided into hierarchical categories: parts (fanns), chapters (ta’līms), subchapters (jumlahs), sections (faṣls), and subsections (bābs).

Book 1

Book 1 comprises six distinct theses, providing a comprehensive overview of medicine, the cosmic elements constituting both the universe and the human physique, the reciprocal interactions among these elements (temperaments), the bodily fluids (humours), human anatomy, and physiology. This volume elucidates the etiological factors underlying both health and disease. Avicenna posited that the restoration of human health necessitates the precise identification of the causative agents for both wellness and pathology. He formally defined medicine (tibb) in the subsequent manner:

"Medicine constitutes the scientific discipline through which we comprehend the diverse physiological states of the body, encompassing both health and illness. It investigates the mechanisms by which health may be compromised and, subsequently, reinstated. Fundamentally, it is the art concerned with preserving health and the art dedicated to its restoration following impairment."

Thesis I: Definition and Delineation of Medicine

Avicenna commences the initial section by distinguishing between theoretical medicine and its practical application. He then delineates the "four causes" of illness, grounded in Aristotelian philosophy: the material cause, the efficient cause, the formal cause, and the final cause.

1. Material Cause: Avicenna identifies this cause as the human subject itself, encompassing "members or the breath" or, indirectly, "the humours."
2. Efficient Cause: The efficient cause is bifurcated into two classifications: "Extrinsic" factors, which are external to the human body, such as atmospheric conditions or geographical environment; and "Intrinsic" factors, which are internal sources, including sleep and its antithesis (the waking state), various life stages, habitual behaviors, and racial predispositions.
3. Formal Cause: Avicenna defined the formal cause as "the constitutions; the compositions." Oskar Cameron Gruner, in his treatise within Avicenna's Canon of Medicine, noted that this concept aligned with Galen's belief that an individual's temperament constitutes the formal cause of illness.
4. Final Cause: The final cause is characterized as "the actions or functions."

Thesis II: The Elements of Cosmology

Gruner identifies Avicenna's cosmological thesis on the elements as "the foundation of the whole Canon." Avicenna stipulated that physicians must acknowledge the four elements delineated by natural philosophy, while also differentiating between "simple" elements—unmixed substances—and their experienced forms, such as the sea or atmosphere. He clarified that observed elements are composites containing minor quantities of other elements, thus not representing pure elemental substances. The "light" elements comprise fire and air, whereas earth and water are categorized as "heavy" elements.

1. The Earth: Avicenna's description of Earth aligns with Aristotelian philosophy, positing it as a geocentric element. He asserted that Earth remains stationary, attracting other objects due to its inherent weight, and characterized it as cold and dry.
2. The Water: Water is positioned exterior to the Earth's sphere and interior to the Air's sphere, a placement attributed to its relative density. It is characterized as cold and moist, with its moisture facilitating the easy formation and dissolution of shapes.
3. The Air: Air's placement above Water and below Fire is ascribed to its relative lightness. It is described as hot and moist, with its influence leading to rarefaction and the softening of substances.
4. The (sphere of the) Fire: Fire occupies the highest position among the elements, extending "to the world of the heavens." Characterized as hot and dry, it permeates the substance of air and mitigates the coldness of the two heavy elements, thereby "bringing the elementary properties into harmony."

Thesis III: The Temperaments

The thesis on temperaments within the Canon of Medicine is structured into three subsections: a general overview, a discussion of temperaments based on bodily members, and an analysis of age-related temperaments.

I. The Temperaments (General Description)

Temperaments are understood as the interplay among the four elemental qualities, exemplified by the dynamic tension between dryness, wetness, cold, and heat. Avicenna proposed that these qualities contend until an equilibrium is established, which then defines the temperament.

The Canon incorporated the ancient theory of Four Temperaments, expanding its scope to include "emotional aspects, mental capacity, moral attitudes, self-awareness, movements and dreams." This elaborated theory of four temperaments is presented in the subsequent table:

The Eight Varieties of Equipoise

The Canon delineates eight distinct "varieties of equipoise," or temperaments, in humans. These temperaments are classified into two primary categories: those pertaining to beings other than humans, and those related to the individual person.

A. In Relation to Beings Other Than Humans

i. "the equability of the temperament seen in man as compared with other creatures"
ii. the temperament of other human beings

Avicenna posited an equilibrium of hot versus cold and moist versus dry qualities among the various members of the human body. For instance, the heart, being hot, must maintain balance with colder bodily parts like the brain. Attaining this inter-member equilibrium signifies a state of "ideal equability" for the individual.

iii. external factors "such as race, climate, atmosphere"

This third criterion for temperament posits that each race possesses a distinct equilibrium. Avicenna illustrated this by stating, "The Hindus, in health, have a different equability to the Slaves, and so on," attributing these racial temperamental variations to differing climates.

iv. in relation to extreme climates

B. In Relation to the Individual Himself

v. "as compared to another person"

Despite listing the fifth mode as "compared to another person," Avicenna seemingly contradicted this by asserting that each individual possesses a temperament uniquely their own, distinct from all others.

These points describe comparisons: first, of the individual himself
, and second, of one bodily member against another
.

The Canon categorizes bodily members based on their inherent "moistness," "dryness," "hotness," and "coldness."

viii. The comparison of a specific member to its own characteristics.

The Canon further elaborates on the sun's influence on ideal temperament, alongside the roles of climate and human skin. While internal organs rarely achieve an ideal temperament, the skin approaches it most closely. Avicenna asserts that the hand, particularly the palm and the index fingertip, exhibits the highest sensitivity to tactile stimuli. Medicinal substances are characterized as "hot" or "cold," not by their intrinsic temperature, but by their interaction with the human body's temperament.

The Canon subsequently addresses conditions where temperaments are imbalanced, defining these as states of illness. Avicenna delineates these imbalances into two primary categories, which are largely self-explanatory given his prior definitions of temperaments.

A. Simple "Intemperaments"

1. Hot temperament (exceeding normal heat levels)
2. Cold temperament (below normal heat levels)
3. Dry temperament (exceeding usual dryness)
4. Moist temperament (exceeding usual moisture levels)

B. Compound "Intemperaments"

Compound intemperaments involve a dual imbalance within the temperament, such as hotter and moister, hotter and drier, colder and moister, or colder and drier. Only four combinations exist, as a state cannot be simultaneously hotter and colder or drier and moister. Each of the four simple temperaments and four compound intemperaments can be further classified into "Those apart from any material substance" and "Those in which some material substance is concerned," resulting in a total of sixteen distinct intemperaments. Illustrative examples of these sixteen intemperaments are presented in the "third and fourth volumes."

II. The Temperament of Individual Bodily Members.

Each bodily member is attributed a distinct temperament, characterized by its specific degree of heat and moisture. Avicenna enumerates the body's members in descending "order of degree of Heat," from the warmest to the coolest.

1. The breath and "the heart, its origin point";
2. The blood, purportedly generated by the liver;
3. The liver, which can be regarded as concentrated blood;
4. The flesh, which would possess a heat comparable to the liver's, were it not for the pervasive nervous tissue;
5. The muscles, cooler than the flesh due to the presence of tendons, ligaments, and nerves;
6. The spleen, colder due to the "faex" (sediment) of the blood;
7. The kidneys;
8. The arterial walls;
9. The veins;
10. The skin of the palms and soles.

Subsequently, a list is presented, ordered from the coldest members to the warmest.

1. The serous humor;
2. The hairs;
3. The bones;
4. The cartilage;
5. The ligaments;
6. The tendons;
7. The membranes;
8. The nerves;
9. The spinal cord;
10. The brain;
11. The fat;
12. The body's oil;
13. The skin.

Following this, a list is provided, ordered by moisture content. Avicenna attributes this specific enumeration to Galen.

1. The serous humor
2. The blood
3. The oil
4. The fat
5. The brain
6. The spinal cord
7. The breasts and the testicles
8. The lung
9. The liver
10. The spleen
11. The kidneys
12. The muscles
13. The skin

Finally, a list is presented, ordered by dryness.

1. The hair
2. The bone
3. Cartilage
4. Ligaments
5. Tendons
6. Serous membranes
7. Arteries
8. Veins
9. Motor nerves
10. Heart
11. Sensory nerves
12. Skin

III. Temperaments Associated with Age.

The Canon delineates life into four distinct "periods," further subdividing the initial period into five separate categories.

The subsequent table illustrates the four periods of life:

Avicenna states that the third period manifests indicators of diminishing vigor and a partial reduction in intellectual capacity. During the fourth period, both vigor and intelligence experience a decline.

Avicenna categorizes the initial stage of life within the subsequent table, referencing Oskar Cameron Gruner's edition of the Canon of Medicine:

Avicenna posits that youth generally possesses a "hot" temperament, yet acknowledges debate regarding the specific phases of youth exhibiting the highest thermal qualities. This prevailing concept of a "hot" youthful temperament stems from an assumed correlation with intrinsically warm bodily components. For instance, Avicenna attributes youth's warmth partly to the greater abundance and viscosity of blood, which was previously identified as a "hot" humor. Avicenna supports the notion of sanguineous excess in youth by noting the increased incidence of epistaxis (nosebleeds) during this life stage. Additional factors contributing to this temperament include the connection between youth and sperm, as well as the specific consistency of their bile. Further elaborations on the thermal and moisture characteristics of youth are provided in relation to sex, geographical origin, and professional activities. For example, The Canon states that females are characterized by colder and more moist dispositions.

The Humours

The Canon of Medicine draws its foundation from Hippocratic medicine's Four Humours, yet incorporates significant refinements. Regarding disease pathogenesis, Avicenna, for instance, "introduced his perspective on distinct categories of spirits (or vital life essences) and souls, positing that their disruption could induce somatic ailments due to their intimate connection with vital organs like the brain and heart". This conceptual framework is evident in the chapter al-Lawa, which links "clinical manifestations to an interruption of vital life essence reaching the brain". He synthesized his theories with the Four Humours to formulate a novel doctrine elucidating the mechanisms of various diseases, detailed in his work, Treatise on Pulse:

"From mixture of the four [humors] in different weights, Allah Almighty [God the most high] created different organs; one with more blood like muscle, one with more black bile like bone, one with more phlegm like brain, and one with more yellow bile like lung.

Allah Almighty [God the most high] created the souls from the softness of humors; each soul has its own weight and amalgamation. The generation and nourishment of proper soul takes place in the heart; it resides in the heart and arteries, and is transmitted from the heart to the organs through the arteries. At first, it [proper soul] enters the master organs such as the brain, liver or reproductive organs; from there it goes to other organs while the nature of the soul is being modified in each [of them]. As long as [the soul] is in the heart, it is quite warm, with the nature of fire, and the softness of bile is dominant. Then, that part which goes to the brain to keep it vital and functioning, becomes colder and wetter, and in its composition the serous softness and phlegm vapor dominate. That part, which enters the liver to keep its vitality and functions, becomes softer, warmer and sensibly wet, and in its composition the softness of air and vapor of blood dominate.

In general, there are four types of proper spirit: One is brutal spirit residing in the heart and it is the origin of all spirits. Another – as physicians refer to it – is sensual spirit residing in the brain. The third – as physicians refer to it – is natural spirit residing in the liver. The fourth is generative – i.e. procreative – spirits residing in the gonads. These four spirits go-between the soul of absolute purity and the body of absolute impurity".

Definition of Body Fluid

The Canon delineates a humor as "that fluid, moist 'body' into which our aliment is transformed", and enumerates four primary fluid categories: sanguineous, serous, bilious, and atrabilious. Secondary fluids are further categorized into "non-excrementitious" and "excrementitious" divisions.

The Sanguineous Humour

Avicenna designates this humor as "the most excellent of all" humors. This segment details blood, contrasting its healthy and pathological conditions. Healthy blood, according to Avicenna, is characterized by its "red color, absence of unpleasant odor, and very sweet taste". Sanguineous abnormalities arise either from a shift in temperament or from contamination by an unhealthy humor.

The Serous Humour

The serous humor is characterized as a sweet fluid, possessing cold and moist qualities when compared to sanguineous and bilious humors. Resembling blood, the serous humor is indispensable for bodily tissues due to its dual functions: providing auxiliary nourishment and maintaining the moisture of bones and tissues.

The Bilious Humour

The bilious humor, characterized by its red, clear, light, and pungent properties, follows two potential pathways: into the bloodstream or the gallbladder. Its entry into the blood serves to attenuate it, facilitating its passage through the body's most minute channels. The portion directed to the gallbladder is essential for cleansing the body of excess substances and providing nourishment to the gallbladder itself.

The Atrabilious Humor

The atrabilious humor is described as dry and cold, forming from the sediment of healthy blood. Originating in the liver, it is subsequently distributed to either the blood or the spleen. In the blood, it functions as nourishment for the bones. Within the spleen, its role involves cleansing the body of waste products and regulating appetite. The excrementitious form of atrabilious humor, representing humoral waste, is characterized as a bitter ash.

Anatomy: 'The Members'

In his treatise titled 'The Members,' Avicenna elucidates the role of humors in constituting the body's components, providing a general overview and methods for their restoration.
These components are categorized into 'simple members,' or 'elementary tissues,' exemplified by bone, cartilage, and tendons, and 'compound members,' such as the heart, liver, and brain. He further distinguishes these into vital and auxiliary organs.
Avicenna proceeds to classify organs through various systemic approaches. The 'According to actions' system organizes members based on their functions, while the 'According to their origin' system categorizes them by positing their derivation from either blood or male or 'female sperm.'

General Physiology

In his treatise on General Physiology, also known as 'The Faculties of the Body,' Avicenna delineates life into three distinct categories: Vital, Natural, and Animal. He contrasts Galen's assertion of the brain as the 'chief seat of sentient life' with Aristotle's perspective, which identifies the heart as the origin of all bodily faculties. Avicenna posits that a meticulous consideration by physicians would lead them to concur with Aristotle regarding the heart's ultimate role as the source of all faculties, even acknowledging that the rational faculty, for instance, manifests in the brain.

Book 2: Materia Medica

Book 2, the Materia Medica section of the Canon, provides an alphabetical compilation of approximately 800 'simple' medical substances prevalent during that era. These substances are deemed 'simple' because they are not compounded with other ingredients. The initial section outlines general principles for drugs and includes a treatise on 'the science of powers of medicines.' The subsequent section presents a list of 800 simple substances derived from floral, mineral, and animal sources. Each entry details the substance's name, its criteria for efficacy (sometimes including its natural occurrence), and its intrinsic nature or primary qualities. Following this, one or more of 22 potential general actions are enumerated, succeeded by specific properties organized according to a grid of 11 disease types. The section concludes by suggesting potential substitutes for each substance.

The Canon delineates seven principles for experimenting with novel drugs, partially derived from Galen's teachings.

1. The drug must be devoid of any acquired qualities, such as those resulting from exposure to heat or cold, or from storage in proximity to other substances.
2. Experiments must be conducted on a singular, rather than a composite, condition, meaning the drug should not be tested on patients presenting with complex or multiple illnesses.
3. The drug should be evaluated under two opposing conditions; a substance might directly address a disease, yet also prove effective against a different ailment by alleviating its symptoms.
4. The drug's quality must align with the disease's severity. It is advisable to commence experimentation with the weakest dosage, progressively increasing it until the drug's potency is definitively established, thereby eliminating any uncertainty.
5. Consideration should be given to the time required for the drug to manifest its effects. An immediate effect indicates that the drug has directly targeted the disease itself.
6. The drug's effect ought to be consistent across all cases, or at least in the majority. Inconsistency suggests an accidental effect, given that natural phenomena typically exhibit uniformity or near-uniformity.
7. Experiments should be performed on the human body, as the medicine's properties might elicit different responses in human subjects compared to animal subjects.

Book 3: Special Pathology

Book 3 systematically organizes content by body part, proceeding cephalocaudally. It details the function and pathologies of each organ, alongside the etiology, symptoms, diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutic approaches for every discussed ailment. This third book is further segmented into several distinct sections, which encompass:

1. Head, Eye, Ear, Nose, Mouth, Throat, and Teeth.
2. Chest, Lung, and Heart.
3. The alimentary tract, including the stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and spleen.
4. The urinary system.
5. Conception, pregnancy, the uterus, and various diseases affecting women.
6. The muscles, joints, and feet.
7. Specialized topics, such as cerebral intemperaments, headaches, various brain diseases, epilepsy, and paralysis.

The content within Book 3 of the Canon of Medicine constitutes some of Avicenna's most significant contributions across multiple academic disciplines, notably atherosclerosis, pulsology, migraines, cataracts, vasovagal syncope, and neuroscience.

Stroke

Book 3 of the Canon of Medicine provides an extensive and detailed description of strokes. Initially, it identifies two primary etiologies: the obstruction of cerebral vessels and the impediment of the brain's affective spirit, the latter explicable solely through humoral medicine theories. The vascular obstruction category is subsequently delineated into two subtypes: collapse and ischemia.

Subsequent to outlining stroke etiologies, Avicenna elaborates on the derivation of occluding agents from blood or phlegm humors, noting their prevalence in individuals characterized by wet and cold temperaments. Book 3 of the Canon of Medicine additionally enumerates various stroke manifestations, including asphyxia, hemiplegia, and a complex of symptoms described as "headache with jugular vein engorgement, dizziness, vertigo, darkened vision, tremor, anxiety, weakness, grinding teeth during sleep, and dark urine with particles." The text further differentiates among distinct stroke causes and classifications, such as cold stroke, coma, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and trauma. Concluding this section, Book 3 details several therapeutic approaches for stroke, encompassing herbal remedies and "non-pharmacological interventions such as venesection and dry or wet cupping on the lower neck and upper back." Although these explanations of stroke causes and treatments are rooted in humoral medicine, they exhibit notable parallels with contemporary understandings of cerebrovascular events.

Neuroscience

Book 3 additionally features a comprehensive chapter dedicated to neuroscience, which "commences with an elucidation of the nervous system's structure and function, ...components of the brain, the spinal cord, the ventricles, meninges, nerves and roots, ... [and] neurological and neuropsychological disorders, encompassing their signs, symptoms, and treatment strategies."

Moreover, the text delineates numerous specific neurological conditions, such as epilepsy, apoplexy and stroke, paralysis, vertigo, spasm, wry mouth, tremor, meningitis, amnesia and dementia, head injuries and traumas, hysteria and conversion disorder, fainting and stupor, nervous tic, sexual disorders, love sickness, delusion and hallucination, insomnia, sopor, nightmare, mania and psychosis, melancholia, paranoia, asthenia, hydrocephalus, and sciatica. Book 3 of the Canon of Medicine also details fifteen distinct types of headaches, alongside therapeutic descriptions for each of these conditions, categorized into three sequential steps:

1. Lifestyle modifications.
2. Simple medicinal remedies.
3. Compound medicinal formulations.

In certain instances, surgical interventions and other non-pharmacological strategies were also advocated, exemplified by the use of electrical shocks for epilepsy treatment.

Book 4: Special Diseases Involving Multiple Body Parts.

Book 4 addresses systemic diseases, including fevers and poisons, as well as localized conditions that can affect any body part, such as wounds or bone fractures. The volume "concludes with a treatise on personal hygiene, emphasizing hair, skin, and nail care, body odor management, and the treatment of individuals who are either overweight or underweight."

Consistent with other ancient Islamic medical texts, Book 4 dedicates substantial sections to an exhaustive examination of fevers. Several distinct categories of fevers are identified, partially differentiated by the anatomical location of the etiological factors for each specific illness:

1. Ephemeral fevers, which involve the pneuma.
2. Putrid fevers, characterized by the putrefaction of humoral residues.
3. Hectic fevers, which manifest in a major organ.

These classifications were further delineated; for instance, Avicenna enumerated 23 distinct categories of ephemeral fevers within Book 4 of the Canon of Medicine.

Book 5: The Formulary

Book 5, designated as the Formulary, meticulously enumerates 650 compound pharmaceuticals, tracing their origins to diverse Arabic, Indian, and Greek traditions. Avicenna augmented these entries with critical commentary, emphasizing discrepancies among various recipes and occasionally providing his own formulations. He also assessed the efficacy or futility of certain treatments, detailing the provenance and preparation methods of specific ingredients. Avicenna advocated for empirically validated remedies, cautioning that composite drugs might exhibit unanticipated or significantly amplified effects compared to their constituent elements.

Legacy and Scholarly Reception

Gerard of Cremona rendered the Qanun into Latin, titling it Canon medicinae. Historical records indicate the existence of two individuals named Gerard of Cremona, both known for translating Arabic texts into Latin. Ostler specifies that the later Gerard, also identified as Gerard de Sabloneta, undertook the translation of the Qanun and other medical treatises into Latin during the 13th century. The comprehensive nature, methodical structure, and synthesis of Galenic medicine with Aristotelian science and philosophy facilitated the Canon's integration into European scholastic medical practice. Medical academics began utilizing the Canon in the 13th century, with its incorporation into university curricula commencing in the 14th century. The Canon's prominence diminished during the 16th century, largely due to the humanist movement's preference for ancient Greek and Roman medical authorities over Arabic ones, although some scholars championed Avicenna's contributions beyond classical precedents. Despite its eventual removal from university syllabi, it continued to be taught as foundational literature in Padua as late as 1715.

The earliest extant manuscript of Volume 5 of the Canon of Medicine, dated 1052, resides within the Aga Khan's collection and is exhibited at the Aga Khan Museum in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The initial printed edition of the Latin Canon emerged in 1472, though it encompassed solely Book Three. Subsequently, eleven complete incunables were issued, succeeded by an additional fourteen Latin editions throughout the 16th century, concluding in 1608.

Beyond its Latin rendition, Nathan ha-Meati translated the Canon of Medicine into Hebrew during the 13th century. Furthermore, comprehensive translations into Turkish and Persian were completed in the 18th century.

William Osler characterized the Canon as "the most famous medical textbook ever written," observing its enduring status as "a medical bible for a longer time than any other work."

In the Introduction to the History of Science, George Sarton articulated:

"The Qanun stands as an immense medical encyclopedia. It encompasses highly insightful observations concerning the differentiation of mediastinitis from pleurisy, the contagious etiology of phthisis, the environmental dissemination of diseases via water and soil, meticulous descriptions of dermatological conditions, sexual pathologies and deviations, and neurological disorders."

Al-Tasrif

• Al-Tasrif
• Medical Literature
• The Book of Healing
• Al-Nijat

Notes and References

Sources

• Abokrysha, Noha (2009). "Ibn Sina (Avicenna) on Pathogenesis of Migraine Compared With the Recent Theories." Headache: The Journal of Head and Face Pain, 49 (6): 923–927. doi:10.1111/j.1526-4610.2009.01394.x. PMID 19562830.Avicenna (1999). The Canon of Medicine (al-Qānūn fī'l-ṭibb), vol. 1. Edited by Laleh Bakhtiar, translated by Oskar Cameron Gruner and Mazhar H. Shah. Great Books of the Islamic World. ISBN 978-1-871031-67-6.Celik, Turgay (2009). "Time to remember Avicenna for his contribution to pulsology." International Journal of Cardiology, 144 (3): 446. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2009.03.082. PMID 19346014.Choopani R, Mosaddegh M, Gir AA, Emtiazy M (2012). "Avicenna (Ibn Sina) aspect of atherosclerosis." International Journal of Cardiology, 156: 330. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2012.01.094. PMID 22357428.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Musallam, B. "AVICENNA x. Medicine and Biology." Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
• Nejabat M, Maleki B, Nimrouzi M, Mahbodi A, Salehi A (2012). "Avicenna and cataracts: a new analysis of contributions to diagnosis and treatment from the canon." Iranian Red Crescent Medical Journal, 14: 265–70. PMC 3398632. PMID 22829984.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link).
• Pormann, Peter E., and Savage-Smith, Emilie (2007). Medieval Islamic Medicine. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-1-58901-161-8.
• Shoja MM, Tubbs RS, Loukas M, Khalili M, Alakbarli F, Cohen-Gadol AA (May 2009). "Vasovagal syncope in the Canon of Avicenna: the first mention of carotid artery hypersensitivity." International Journal of Cardiology, 134: 297–301. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2009.02.035. PMID 19332359.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link).
• Zargaran Arman, Mehdizadeh Alireza, Zarshenas Mohamad M., Mohagheghzadeh Abdolali (2012). "Avicenna (980–1037 AD)." Journal of Neurology, 259 (2): 389–390. doi:10.1007/s00415-011-6219-2. PMID 21887514.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Zargaran A, Zarshenas MM, Karimi A, Yarmohammadi H, Borhani-Haghighi A (2013). "Management of stroke as described by Ibn Sina (Avicenna) in the Canon of Medicine." International Journal of Cardiology, 169: 233–7. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2013.08.115. PMID 24063916.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link).

• Biography of Avicenna
• A scanned copy of Kitab alQanun fi alTibb (Book (of) the Canon of Medicine)