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Jack London
Literature

Jack London

TORIma Academy — Novelist

Jack London

Jack London

John Griffith London ( né Chaney ; January 12, 1876 – November 22, 1916), better known as Jack London , was an American novelist, journalist and activist. A…

John Griffith London (né Chaney; January 12, 1876 – November 22, 1916), widely recognized as Jack London, was a prominent American novelist, journalist, and activist. He pioneered commercial fiction and American magazine writing, achieving international celebrity and substantial financial success through his literary endeavors, a rare feat for American authors of his era. Furthermore, London was an innovator in the literary genre subsequently identified as science fiction.

In San Francisco, London was affiliated with the radical literary collective known as "The Crowd" and was a fervent proponent of animal welfare, workers' rights, and socialist principles. His literary output frequently addressed these themes, exemplified by his dystopian novel The Iron Heel, the non-fiction exposé The People of the Abyss, War of the Classes, and Before Adam.

Among his most renowned works are The Call of the Wild and White Fang, both narratives set in Alaska and the Yukon during the Klondike Gold Rush, alongside short stories such as "To Build a Fire," "An Odyssey of the North," and "Love of Life." Additionally, London explored themes of the South Pacific in tales like "The Pearls of Parlay" and "The Heathen."

Family

Jack London's birth occurred on January 12, 1876. His mother, Flora Wellman, was the youngest of five children born to Marshall Wellman, a Pennsylvania Canal constructor, and his first spouse, Eleanor Garrett Jones. Marshall Wellman's lineage traced back to Thomas Wellman, an early Puritan colonist in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Following her mother's death and her father's subsequent remarriage, Flora relocated from Massillon, Ohio, to the Pacific coast. In San Francisco, Flora Wellman pursued professions as a music teacher and a spiritualist.

Biographer Clarice Stasz, among other researchers, posits that London's biological father was the astrologer William Chaney. Flora Wellman resided with Chaney in San Francisco during her pregnancy. The legal marital status of Wellman and Chaney remains unconfirmed. Stasz highlights that Chaney's memoirs refer to Flora Wellman as "his wife," and an advertisement exists where Flora identified herself as "Florence Wellman Chaney."

As documented in Flora Wellman's statement published in the San Francisco Chronicle on June 4, 1875, Chaney insisted that she undergo an abortion. Upon her refusal, he disavowed any paternal responsibility for the unborn child. In a state of desperation, she attempted suicide by shooting herself. Although not critically injured, she experienced a temporary mental disturbance. Following the birth, Flora entrusted the infant to Virginia (Jennie) Prentiss, a neighbor and former slave, for wet-nursing. Prentiss became a significant maternal presence throughout London's life, whom he later acknowledged as his principal source of childhood love and affection.

In late 1876, Flora Wellman married John London, a partially disabled Civil War veteran, and subsequently brought her infant son, John (later known as Jack), to reside with the newly formed family. The family relocated multiple times within the San Francisco Bay Area before establishing residence in Oakland, where London completed his public elementary education. The Prentiss family also moved with the Londons, continuing to provide consistent care for young Jack.

In 1897, at the age of 21 and while enrolled at the University of California, Berkeley, London investigated and reviewed newspaper reports concerning his mother's suicide attempt and the identity of his biological father. He subsequently corresponded with William Chaney, who was then residing in Chicago. Chaney's reply stated his inability to be London's father due to impotence; he further alleged that London's mother had engaged in relationships with other men and accused her of slander for claiming he had demanded an abortion. London was profoundly affected by this letter; consequently, in the ensuing months, he withdrew from his studies at Berkeley and traveled to the Klondike amidst the gold rush.

Early life

Jack London's birth occurred in San Francisco, in the vicinity of Third and Brannan Streets. The residence was destroyed in the conflagration following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, with the California Historical Society commemorating the site with a plaque in 1953. While the family belonged to the working class, their financial circumstances were not as destitute as London's subsequent narratives suggested. London primarily acquired his education through self-study. In 1885, London discovered and read Ouida's extensive Victorian novel, Signa. He attributed this work as the foundational inspiration for his literary achievements. By 1886, he visited the Oakland Public Library, where he encountered Ina Coolbrith, a supportive librarian who fostered his intellectual development. Coolbrith subsequently attained the distinction of becoming California's inaugural poet laureate and emerged as a significant personality within San Francisco's literary circles.

In 1889, London commenced working long hours, typically 12 to 18 daily, at Hickmott's Cannery. To escape this demanding labor, he secured a loan from his foster mother, Virginia Prentiss. With these funds, he purchased the sloop Razzle-Dazzle from an oyster pirate known as French Frank, subsequently embarking on a career as an oyster pirate. In his autobiographical work, John Barleycorn, London additionally asserts that he absconded with French Frank's mistress, Mamie. Within a few months, the sloop sustained irreparable damage. Subsequently, London joined the California Fish Patrol.

In 1893, London enlisted on the sealing schooner Sophie Sutherland, which was destined for the Japanese coast. Upon his return, the nation was experiencing the economic downturn of the Panic of 1893, and Oakland was simultaneously affected by widespread labor unrest. Following arduous employment in a jute mill and a street-railway power plant, London became a member of Coxey's Army, thus commencing his period as a transient. In 1894, he was incarcerated for 30 days on charges of vagrancy at the Erie County Penitentiary in Buffalo, New York. In his work The Road, he recounted:

Man-handling was merely one of the very minor unprintable horrors of the Erie County Pen. I say 'unprintable'; and in justice I must also say undescribable. They were unthinkable to me until I saw them, and I was no spring chicken in the ways of the world and the awful abysses of human degradation. It would take a deep plummet to reach bottom in the Erie County Pen, and I do but skim lightly and facetiously the surface of things as I there saw them.

Following numerous experiences as a transient and a mariner, London returned to Oakland and enrolled at Oakland High School. He contributed several articles to the school's magazine, The Aegis. His initial published work, "Typhoon off the Coast of Japan," detailed his maritime experiences.

During his school years, London frequently studied at Heinold's First and Last Chance Saloon, a waterfront establishment in Oakland. At the age of 17, he confided in the proprietor, John Heinold, his aspiration to attend university and embark on a writing career. Heinold subsequently provided London with funds for college tuition.

London harbored a strong desire to matriculate at the University of California, Berkeley. In 1896, following a summer of rigorous study to pass the requisite certification examinations, he gained admission. However, financial constraints compelled him to withdraw in 1897, and he did not complete his degree. There is no extant evidence indicating his contribution to student publications during his tenure at Berkeley.

During his time at Berkeley, London persisted in his studies and frequented Heinold's saloon, where he encountered various sailors and adventurers who significantly influenced his literary work. In his autobiographical novel, John Barleycorn, London referenced the establishment's character seventeen times. It was at Heinold's that London encountered Alexander McLean, a captain renowned for his maritime cruelty. London subsequently modeled his protagonist, Wolf Larsen, in the novel The Sea-Wolf, after McLean.

Heinold's First and Last Chance Saloon is presently unofficially designated as Jack London's Rendezvous, in tribute to him.

Gold rush and first success

On July 12, 1897, London, then 21 years old, embarked with his brother-in-law, Captain Shepard, to participate in the Klondike Gold Rush. This period provided the backdrop for several of his initial successful narratives. However, London's experiences in the arduous Klondike proved detrimental to his health. Similar to many prospectors who suffered malnutrition in the goldfields, London contracted scurvy. His gums became severely swollen, resulting in the loss of his four front teeth. He endured persistent, gnawing pain in his hip and leg muscles, and his face bore indelible marks that served as constant reminders of his Klondike hardships. Father William Judge, known as "The Saint of Dawson," operated a facility in Dawson that offered shelter, sustenance, and medical aid to London and other individuals. These arduous experiences subsequently inspired London's short story, "To Build a Fire" (1902, revised in 1908), a work frequently regarded by critics as his finest.

In Dawson, London's landlords were mining engineers Marshall Latham Bond and Louis Whitford Bond. Marshall Bond had earned a Bachelor's degree from the Sheffield Scientific School at Yale, while Louis Whitford Bond held a Master's degree from Stanford. Their father, Judge Hiram Bond, was a prosperous mining investor. During the Bond brothers' time at Stanford, Hiram, acting upon his brother's suggestion, acquired the New Park Estate in Santa Clara and a local bank. The Bond family, particularly Hiram, were prominent Republicans. Marshall Bond's diary records amicable debates with London on political subjects, which served as a common camp diversion.

London departed Oakland possessing a developed social conscience and socialist inclinations; he subsequently returned to become an ardent advocate for socialism. He determined that his sole prospect of escaping the perceived "trap" of labor lay in acquiring an education and leveraging his intellect. He regarded his writing as a commercial enterprise, a pathway out of destitution, and, ideally, a method to surpass the affluent within their own system.

Upon his return to California in 1898, London initiated efforts to publish his work, a challenging period chronicled in his novel Martin Eden (serialized in 1908, published in 1909). His inaugural published story since his high school years was "To the Man On Trail," a piece frequently featured in literary anthologies. When The Overland Monthly offered a mere five dollars for this work and was notably slow in payment, London nearly abandoned his literary aspirations. He recounted being "literally and literarily saved" when The Black Cat accepted his story "A Thousand Deaths" and provided him with $40, which he described as "the first money I ever received for a story."

London commenced his writing career concurrently with the emergence of new printing technologies that facilitated the more economical production of magazines. This technological advancement led to a significant expansion in popular magazines targeting a broad readership and fostered a robust market for short fictional works. By 1900, his literary endeavors generated $2,500, an amount equivalent to approximately $97,000 in contemporary currency. One notable work sold to magazines was a short story published in two editions, "Diable" (1902) and "Bâtard" (1904), both presenting the same core narrative. On May 27, 1902, London was compensated $141.25 for this particular story. The narrative depicts a cruel French Canadian who brutalizes his dog, leading to the animal's retaliation and the man's death. London asserted to critics that human actions fundamentally shape animal behavior, a theme he would famously explore in his subsequent work, The Call of the Wild.

In early 1903, London sold The Call of the Wild to The Saturday Evening Post for $750, concurrently assigning the book rights to Macmillan. Macmillan's subsequent promotional efforts were instrumental in the work's rapid commercial success.

During his residency at a rented villa on Lake Merritt in Oakland, California, London encountered the poet George Sterling, with whom he eventually developed a close friendship. In 1902, Sterling assisted London in securing a residence nearer to his own in the adjacent community of Piedmont. In their correspondence, London referred to Sterling as "Greek," a moniker inspired by Sterling's aquiline nose and classical profile, while London signed his letters as "Wolf." London subsequently portrayed Sterling as Russ Brissenden in his autobiographical novel Martin Eden (1910) and as Mark Hall in The Valley of the Moon (1913).

Later in his life, London cultivated his diverse intellectual pursuits by amassing a personal library comprising 15,000 volumes. He characterized his extensive collection of books as "the tools of my trade."

The Crowd (literary group)

The Crowd convened at various restaurants, including Coppa's, located within the historic Montgomery Block, and subsequently evolved into a:

A bohemian collective that frequently dedicated Sunday afternoons to picnicking, sharing recent literary compositions, discussing personal indiscretions, and engaging in leisurely activities beneath the cherry trees in the Piedmont hills. – Alex Kershaw, historian

Established after 1898, the group held Sunday meetings at Xavier Martinez's residence and Wednesday gatherings at Jack London's home. Regular members of this assembly typically comprised George Sterling (poet) and his wife Caroline "Carrie" E. (née Rand) Sterling, Anna Strunsky, Herman Whitaker, Ambrose Bierce, Richard Partington and his wife Blanche, Joseph Noel (dramatist, novelist, and journalist), Joaquin Miller, Arnold Genthe, and the hosts, Jack London and his wife, Bessie Maddern London, along with Xavier Martinez and his wife, Elsie Whitaker Martinez.

First marriage (1900–1904)

London married Elizabeth Mae (or May) "Bessie" Maddern on April 7, 1900, coinciding with the publication of The Son of the Wolf. Bess had been a member of his social circle for several years prior to their marriage. She maintained familial connections to the stage actresses Minnie Maddern Fiske and Emily Stevens. According to Stasz, "Both acknowledged publicly that they were not marrying out of love, but from friendship and a belief that they would produce sturdy children." Kingman states, "they were comfortable together... Jack had made it clear to Bessie that he did not love her, but that he liked her enough to make a successful marriage."

London's introduction to Bessie occurred through his Oakland High School friend, Fred Jacobs, to whom she was engaged. Bessie, an instructor at Anderson's University Academy in Alameda, California, tutored London in 1896 to prepare him for his entrance examinations for the University of California at Berkeley. Despite Jacobs' death aboard the Scandia in 1897, London and Bessie maintained their friendship, engaging in activities such as photography and film development. This period marked the inception of London's profound interest in photography.

Throughout his marriage, London maintained a friendship with Anna Strunsky, with whom he co-authored The Kempton-Wace Letters, an epistolary novel that explored contrasting philosophies of love. Strunsky, adopting the persona of "Dane Kempton," advocated a romantic perspective on marriage, whereas London, writing as "Herbert Wace," presented a scientific viewpoint rooted in Darwinism and eugenics. Within the narrative, London's fictional character drew comparisons between two women he had encountered.

London affectionately referred to Bess as "Mother-Girl," while she called him "Daddy-Boy." Their first daughter, Joan, was born on January 15, 1901, followed by their second, Bessie, also known as "Becky" (or sometimes "Bess"), on October 20, 1902. Both daughters were born in Piedmont, California. It was in Piedmont that London authored one of his most celebrated works, The Call of the Wild.

Despite London's pride in his children, the marriage experienced significant strain. According to Kingman, by 1903, the couple was nearing separation due to their "extreme incompatibility." However, London's continued kindness and gentleness towards Bessie led their house guest, Cloudsley Johns, to not suspect a marital breakdown during his

London reportedly voiced his grievances to friends Joseph Noel and George Sterling:

[Bessie] is devoted to purity. When I tell her morality is only evidence of low blood pressure, she hates me. She'd sell me and the children out for her damned purity. It's terrible. Every time I come back after being away from home for a night she won't let me be in the same room with her if she can help it.

Stasz interprets these statements as "code words" for Bess's apprehension that London was engaging with prostitutes and could transmit venereal disease.

On July 24, 1903, London informed Bessie of his departure and subsequently moved out of their residence. Throughout 1904, London and Bess negotiated the terms of their divorce, which was finalized on November 11, 1904.

War correspondent (1904)

In early 1904, London accepted an assignment from the San Francisco Examiner to cover the Russo-Japanese War, arriving in Yokohama on January 25 of that year. Japanese authorities arrested him in Shimonoseki, but he was released following the intervention of American ambassador Lloyd Griscom. After traveling to Korea, he faced a second arrest by Japanese authorities for approaching the Manchurian border without official authorization, resulting in his return to Seoul. Upon his subsequent release, London received permission to accompany the Imperial Japanese Army to the border and observe the Battle of the Yalu.

London requested permission from William Randolph Hearst, owner of the San Francisco Examiner, to transfer to the Imperial Russian Army, believing that reporting and movement restrictions would be less stringent there. However, prior to this transfer being arranged, he was arrested for a third time within four months, on this occasion for assaulting his Japanese assistants, whom he accused of stealing his horse's fodder. Following his release, secured by the personal intervention of President Theodore Roosevelt, London departed the front in June 1904.

Bohemian Club

On August 18, 1904, London attended the "Summer High Jinks" at the Bohemian Grove alongside his close friend, the poet George Sterling. London was subsequently elected to honorary membership in the Bohemian Club and participated in numerous activities. During this period, other prominent members of the Bohemian Club included Ambrose Bierce, Gelett Burgess, Allan Dunn, John Muir, Frank Norris, and Herman George Scheffauer.

Commencing in December 1914, London developed The Acorn Planter, A California Forest Play, intending it for performance as one of the annual Grove Plays; however, it was never chosen. The work was deemed too challenging to adapt to music. London published The Acorn Planter in 1916.

Second marriage

Following his divorce from Maddern, London married Charmian Kittredge in 1905. Kittredge had been introduced to London in 1900 by her aunt Netta Eames, an editor at San Francisco's Overland Monthly magazine. Although they had met before his first marriage, their relationship became romantic years later, specifically after Jack and Bessie London visited Wake Robin, Netta Eames' Sonoma County resort, in 1903. During this visit, London sustained an injury from a buggy fall, and Netta arranged for Charmian to provide care. A friendship developed between them, further strengthened by Charmian, Netta, her husband Roscoe, and London's shared political alignment with socialist causes. Eventually, their relationship evolved into a romance, leading London to divorce his wife and marry Charmian, who was five years his senior.

Biographer Russ Kingman characterized Charmian as Jack London's soulmate, consistently by his side and an ideal partner. The couple undertook numerous journeys, notably a 1907 cruise aboard the yacht Snark, which took them to Hawaii and Australia. Many of London's narratives draw inspiration from his Hawaiian visits, the final one lasting ten months and commencing in December 1915.

In 1907, the Londons also traveled to Goldfield, Nevada, staying with the Bond brothers, who had previously been London's landlords in Dawson City. At that time, the Bond brothers were employed as mining engineers in Nevada.

In The Kempton-Wace Letters, London explored the contrasting archetypes of the "Mother Girl" and the "Mate Woman." He affectionately referred to Bess as "Mother-Girl" and Charmian as "Mate-Woman." Charmian's aunt and foster mother, a follower of Victoria Woodhull, fostered an upbringing free from prudishness. Biographers consistently note Charmian's uninhibited sexuality.

Joseph Noel described the period from 1903 to 1905 as "a domestic drama that would have intrigued the pen of an Ibsen," noting that London's experience included "comedy relief... and a sort of easy-going romance." Essentially, London experienced restlessness in his first marriage, pursued extramarital relationships, and discovered in Charmian Kittredge not only a sexually active and adventurous partner but also his future life companion. The couple attempted to have children; however, one child died at birth, and another pregnancy resulted in a miscarriage.

In 1906, London published his eyewitness account of the San Francisco earthquake in Collier's magazine.

Beauty Ranch (1905–1916)

In 1905, London acquired a 1,000-acre (4.0 km2) ranch located in Glen Ellen, Sonoma County, California, on the eastern slope of Sonoma Mountain. He stated, "Next to my wife, the ranch is the dearest thing in the world to me." He harbored a strong desire for the ranch to develop into a prosperous business venture. For London, writing, which had always been a commercial endeavor, increasingly served as a means to an end, as he articulated: "I write for no other purpose than to add to the beauty that now belongs to me. I write a book for no other reason than to add three or four hundred acres to my magnificent estate."

Stasz notes that London "had taken fully to heart the vision, expressed in his agrarian fiction, of the land as the closest earthly version of Eden," and that "he educated himself through the study of agricultural manuals and scientific tomes," ultimately conceiving "a system of ranching that today would be praised for its ecological wisdom." He took pride in possessing California's first concrete silo. He aimed to integrate principles of Asian sustainable agriculture into practices within the United States. He employed both Italian and Chinese stonemasons, whose distinct stylistic differences are evident.

Despite his efforts, the ranch proved to be an economic failure. Sympathetic commentators, including Stasz, view London's projects as potentially viable, attributing their lack of success to misfortune or to their innovative nature being ahead of the era. Conversely, critical historians like Kevin Starr propose that London was an ineffective manager, frequently diverted by other interests and hindered by his alcoholism. Starr observes that London was absent from the ranch for approximately six months annually between 1910 and 1916, stating, "He liked the show of managerial power, but not grinding attention to detail.... London's workers laughed at his efforts to play big-time rancher [and considered] the operation a rich man's hobby."

London invested $80,000 (equivalent to $2,870,000 in current value) in constructing a 15,000-square-foot (1,400 m2) stone mansion, named Wolf House, on the estate. However, just as the mansion neared completion, and two weeks prior to the Londons' intended occupancy, it was consumed by fire.

London's final During this period, he met with figures such as Duke Kahanamoku, Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalaniana'ole, and Queen Lili'uokalani, among others, before returning to his ranch in July 1916. Despite suffering from kidney failure, he persisted in his work.

The ranch, which abuts the stone remnants of Wolf House, is currently designated a National Historic Landmark and is preserved within Jack London State Historic Park.

Animal activism

London observed animal cruelty during the training of circus animals, leading him to include a foreword in his subsequent novels, Jerry of the Islands and Michael, Brother of Jerry, urging the public to gain greater awareness of this practice. In 1918, the Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals collaborated with the American Humane Education Society to establish the Jack London Club, an organization dedicated to educating the public about the mistreatment of circus animals and advocating for protests against such establishments. The collective support from Club members resulted in a temporary halt of trained animal performances at Ringling–Barnum and Bailey in 1925.

Death

Jack London passed away on November 22, 1916, in a sleeping porch within a cottage located on his ranch. Although previously robust, London had endured several severe illnesses, such as scurvy contracted in the Klondike. Furthermore, during their voyages aboard the Snark, both he and Charmian acquired various tropical infections and diseases, notably yaws. At the time of his demise, he was afflicted with dysentery, advanced alcoholism, and uremia, experiencing intense pain and self-administering morphine and opium, which were then commonly available without prescription.

London's cremated remains were interred on his estate, in proximity to the Wolf House. His funeral, held on November 26, 1916, was a private affair, attended solely by intimate friends, family members, and estate employees. Pursuant to his explicit wishes, he was cremated and interred beside pioneer children, beneath a rock associated with the Wolf House. Following Charmian's passing in 1955, she was also cremated and subsequently interred alongside her husband in the location he had selected. A moss-covered boulder designates the grave site. Subsequently, the estate's structures and grounds were designated as the Jack London State Historic Park, situated in Glen Ellen, California.

Suicide debate

Due to his morphine use, numerous historical accounts, and some contemporary ones, characterize London's death as a suicide. This assertion, however, seems to stem from rumor or speculation derived from events depicted in his fictional works. His official death certificate records uremia, subsequent to acute renal colic, as the cause of death.

Biographer Clarice Stasz observes that "Following London's death, for a number of reasons, a biographical myth developed in which he has been portrayed as an alcoholic womanizer who committed suicide. Recent scholarship based upon firsthand documents challenges this caricature." The majority of biographers, including Russ Kingman, now concur that his death resulted from uremia exacerbated by an accidental morphine overdose.

Instances of suicide are present in London's fictional works. In his autobiographical memoir, John Barleycorn, he recounts a youthful incident where he drunkenly fell overboard into the San Francisco Bay, stating, "some maundering fancy of going out with the tide suddenly obsessed me." He described drifting and almost drowning before regaining sobriety and being saved by fishermen. The climax of The Little Lady of the Big House depicts the heroine, facing the agony of a fatal gunshot wound, undergoing a physician-assisted suicide using morphine. Additionally, in Martin Eden, the main protagonist, who exhibits certain parallels with London, commits suicide by drowning.

Plagiarism accusations

Jack London was susceptible to plagiarism accusations, a vulnerability stemming from his prominent, prolific, and successful writing career, as well as his particular working methods. In a letter to Elwyn Hoffman, he stated, "expression, you see—with me—is far easier than invention." He acquired plots and narrative concepts from the nascent writer Sinclair Lewis and frequently utilized incidents reported in newspaper clippings as source material for his works.

In July 1901, two distinct fictional works were published concurrently: London's "Moon-Face" in the San Francisco Argonaut, and Frank Norris' "The Passing of Cock-eye Blacklock" in Century Magazine. Press reports highlighted the thematic similarities between these narratives, which London acknowledged as "quite different in manner of treatment, [but] patently the same in foundation and motive." London clarified that both authors had drawn inspiration from an identical newspaper report. A year subsequent to this, it was revealed that Charles Forrest McLean had also published a fictional story derived from the same incident.

Egerton Ryerson Young asserted that London's novel The Call of the Wild (1903) was derived from Young's own work, My Dogs in the Northland (1902). London admitted to utilizing Young's book as a source, stating he had sent a letter of gratitude to Young.

In 1906, the New York World featured "deadly parallel" columns, juxtaposing eighteen excerpts from London's short story "Love of Life" with comparable sections from a nonfiction article by Augustus Biddle and J. K. Macdonald, titled "Lost in the Land of the Midnight Sun." London observed that the World did not explicitly charge him with "plagiarism" but rather with "identity of time and situation," a charge he "pled guilty" to with defiance.

The most significant accusation of plagiarism concerned London's "The Bishop's Vision," Chapter 7 of his 1908 novel, The Iron Heel. This chapter bore striking resemblance to an ironic essay published by Frank Harris in 1901, titled "The Bishop of London and Public Morality." Harris was outraged and proposed that he should be compensated with 1/60th of the royalties from The Iron Heel, as the contested content comprised approximately that proportion of the entire novel. London maintained that he had clipped a reprinted version of the article from an American newspaper and genuinely believed it to be an authentic speech delivered by the Bishop of London.

Views

Political views

Jack London's socialist perspective is clearly demonstrated in his novel The Iron Heel. His socialism was not theoretical or intellectual but rather emerged directly from his personal experiences. In his essay "How I Became a Socialist," London detailed how his views were shaped by interactions with individuals experiencing extreme social disadvantage. He subsequently lost his optimism and individualism, resolving to avoid excessive manual labor. He described this transformation as the eradication of his individualism and a political rebirth. His correspondence frequently concluded with the phrase, "Yours for the Revolution."

London became a member of the Socialist Labor Party in April 1896. That same year, the San Francisco Chronicle reported on the twenty-year-old London's nightly speeches in Oakland's City Hall Park, an activity that led to his arrest a year later. By 1901, he had departed from the Socialist Labor Party to join the newly formed Socialist Party of America. He unsuccessfully campaigned as a prominent Socialist candidate for mayor of Oakland in 1901, securing 245 votes, and again in 1905, where his support increased to 981 votes. In 1906, he lectured nationwide on socialism and released two essay collections on the subject: War of the Classes (1905) and Revolution, and other Essays (1906).

Stasz noted that London viewed the Wobblies as a beneficial addition to the Socialist cause, though he did not advocate for sabotage alongside them. Stasz also documented a personal meeting between London and Big Bill Haywood in 1912. In his 1913 work, The Cruise of the Snark, London recounted receiving membership requests for the Snark's crew from office workers and other laborers seeking urban escape, as well as instances of being defrauded by workmen.

During his time at the Glen Ellen ranch, London expressed some ambivalence towards socialism and voiced complaints about the "inefficient Italian labourers" he employed. He resigned from the Glen Ellen chapter of the Socialist Party in 1916. California cultural historian Kevin Starr, in a critical assessment of London's ranch period, characterized this era as "post-socialist," suggesting that by 1911, London had become more disengaged from the class struggle than he acknowledged.

However, George Orwell identified a fascist tendency within London's perspective:

But temperamentally he was very different from the majority of Marxists. With his love of violence and physical strength, his belief in 'natural aristocracy', his animal-worship and exaltation of the primitive, he had in him what one might fairly call a Fascist strain.

Electoral history

Race

London shared prevalent concerns among many European Americans in California regarding Asian immigration, a phenomenon often termed "the yellow peril," which he used as the title for a 1904 essay. This theme also formed the basis of his 1910 story, "The Unparalleled Invasion." Structured as a future historical essay, the narrative details events between 1976 and 1987, depicting China's escalating population leading to the colonization of neighboring countries and an ambition to dominate the entire Earth. Western nations retaliate with biological warfare, deploying numerous infectious diseases against China. Regarding his anxieties about China, he conceded at the conclusion of "The Yellow Peril" that "it must be taken into consideration that the above postulate is itself a product of Western race-egotism, urged by our belief in our own righteousness and fostered by a faith in ourselves which may be as erroneous as are most fond race fancies."

Conversely, many of London's short stories are distinguished by their empathetic depictions of Mexican ("The Mexican"), Asian ("The Chinago"), and Hawaiian ("Koolau the Leper") characters. His war correspondence from the Russo-Japanese War and his unfinished novel Cherry reveal his considerable admiration for Japanese customs and capabilities. London's works have achieved popularity in Japan, with some readers perceiving his portrayals of them as positive.

In "Koolau the Leper," London characterizes Koolau, a Hawaiian leper who differs significantly from the "superman" archetype of Martin Eden, as "indomitable spiritually—a ... magnificent rebel" for successfully resisting capture by an entire cavalry troop. This character draws inspiration from the Hawaiian leper Kaluaikoolau, who in 1893 led a revolt and evaded capture by forces of the Provisional Government of Hawaii in the Kalalau Valley.

Defenders of London against accusations of racism frequently reference a letter he penned to the Japanese-American Commercial Weekly in 1913:

In reply to yours of August 16, 1913. First of all, I should say by stopping the stupid newspaper from always fomenting race prejudice. This of course, being impossible, I would say, next, by educating the people of Japan so that they will be too intelligently tolerant to respond to any call to race prejudice. And, finally, by realizing, in industry and government, of socialism—which last word is merely a word that stands for the actual application of in the affairs of men of the theory of the Brotherhood of Man.

In the meantime the nations and races are only unruly boys who have not yet grown to the stature of men. So we must expect them to do unruly and boisterous things at times. And, just as boys grow up, so the races of mankind will grow up and laugh when they look back upon their childish quarrels.

In 1996, the City of Whitehorse, Yukon, initially renamed a street in London's honor; however, public protests regarding London's perceived racism compelled the city to revert the street's name from "Jack London Boulevard" to "Two-mile Hill".

Following Jack Johnson's historic crowning as the first Black world heavyweight boxing champion in 1908, London publicly advocated for a white contender to challenge and defeat Johnson. Boxing writer Nat Fleischer documented London's appeal to Jim Jeffries, stating, "it's up to you, to save the white race." While the specific phrase "saving the white race" was an embellishment attributed to Fleischer, London's published works unequivocally indicate his preference for a white boxer to secure the championship title. Although the boxing term "great white hope" is frequently ascribed to London, its initial usage predates boxing, appearing in other contexts during the 19th century, and was specifically applied to Jeffries in the 1960s.

Eugenics

Alongside contemporary modernist writers, London endorsed the principles of eugenics. The concept of "good breeding" aligned with Progressive Era scientism, which posited a hierarchical classification of humans based on race, religion, and ethnicity. This Progressive Era categorization of inferiority provided a framework for perceived threats to American Anglo-Saxon racial integrity. In correspondence with Frederick H. Robinson of the periodical Medical Review of Reviews, London asserted, "I believe the future belongs to eugenics, and will be determined by the practice of eugenics." While this perspective prompted some to advocate for the compulsory sterilization of criminals or individuals classified as feeble-minded, London himself did not articulate such extreme measures. Notably, his short story "Told in the Drooling Ward" adopts the perspective of a character identified as "feeble-minded" who demonstrates unexpected astuteness.

Hensley contends that London's novel Before Adam (1906–07) exhibits pro-eugenic themes. During the development of The Kempton-Wace Letters, London informed his collaborator Anna Strunsky that he would represent the eugenic perspective on mating, while she would advocate for romantic love. (Ultimately, the argument for romantic love prevailed.) While The Valley of the Moon highlights the theme of "real Americans," specifically Anglo-Saxons, London's approach in Little Lady of the Big House demonstrates greater nuance. The protagonist's assertion is not that all white men are inherently superior, but rather that a higher proportion of superior individuals exists within the white population compared to other races; consequently, promoting mating among the most capable individuals of any race would enhance its population's qualities. His experiences living in Hawaii subsequently challenged these orthodox views. In "My Hawaiian Aloha," London observed the extensive intermarriage among various races, concluding that "little Hawaii, with its hotch potch races, is making a better demonstration than the United States."

Works

Short stories

Western writer and historian Dale L. Walker writes:

London's true métier was the short story ... London's true genius lay in the short form, 7,500 words and under, where the flood of images in his teeming brain and the innate power of his narrative gift were at once constrained and freed. His stories that run longer than the magic 7,500 generally—but certainly not always—could have benefited from self-editing.

London's short stories are recognized for their exceptional narrative power and meticulous construction. Among these, "To Build a Fire" stands as his most renowned work. Set in the unforgiving Klondike, the narrative follows a newcomer's perilous journey, undertaken despite an experienced elder's caution against solitary travel. After falling through ice into a creek in extreme sub-zero temperatures, the unnamed protagonist faces a critical test of survival, relying on his unproven ability to quickly construct a fire to dry his clothing and warm his extremities. London initially published a milder version of this story, featuring a positive resolution, in The Youth's Companion in 1902. He later presented a more somber and severe rendition of the man's struggle in The Century Magazine in 1908. A comparative reading of both versions effectively illustrates London's development and maturation as a literary artist. As Labor (1994) observes, "To compare the two versions is itself an instructive lesson in what distinguished a great work of literary art from a good children's story."

Additional stories from London's Klondike period include "All Gold Canyon," which depicts a conflict between a gold prospector and a claim jumper; "The Law of Life," focusing on an elderly American Indian man abandoned by his tribe to face death; "Love of Life," detailing a prospector's arduous trek across the Canadian tundra; "To the Man on Trail," narrating a prospector's escape from the Mounted Police during a sled race and exploring the tension between codified law and moral principles; and "An Odyssey of the North," which examines conditional morality and offers a sympathetic portrayal of a character of mixed White and Aleut heritage.

London was an enthusiastic boxing fan and an active amateur boxer. His story "A Piece of Steak" describes a boxing match between an older and a younger fighter, contrasting the experiences of youth and age while also addressing the societal issue of how aging workers are treated. "The Mexican" integrates boxing with a social commentary, depicting a young Mexican who endures an unfair fight and ethnic prejudice to earn funds for a revolutionary cause.

Several of London's narratives are now categorized as science fiction. "The Unparalleled Invasion" portrays germ warfare directed against China; "Golia" features an irresistible energy weapon; "The Shadow and the Flash" recounts the divergent paths two brothers take to achieve invisibility; and "A Relic of the Pliocene" is a hyperbolic tale about a contemporary man's encounter with a mammoth. "The Red One," a later work, emerged during a period when London was influenced by the theories of psychiatrist and writer Carl Jung, depicting an island tribe captivated by an extraterrestrial artifact.

Approximately nineteen original collections of short stories were published either during London's lifetime or shortly after his death. Subsequently, several posthumous anthologies have been compiled from this extensive body of work. Many of these stories are set in the Klondike and the Pacific regions. A compilation titled Jack London's San Francisco Stories was released in October 2010 by Sydney Samizdat Press.

Novels

London's most celebrated novels include The Call of the Wild, White Fang, The Sea-Wolf, The Iron Heel, and Martin Eden.

In a letter dated December 27, 1901, George Platt Brett, Sr., London's publisher at Macmillan, expressed his conviction that London's fiction represented "the very best kind of work" produced in America.

Critic Maxwell Geismar characterized The Call of the Wild as "a beautiful prose poem"; editor Franklin Walker asserted that it "belongs on a shelf with Walden and Huckleberry Finn"; and novelist E.L. Doctorow described it as "a mordant parable ... his masterpiece."

Historian Dale L. Walker offered the following observation:

Jack London was an uncomfortable novelist, that form too long for his natural impatience and the quickness of his mind. His novels, even the best of them, are hugely flawed.

Some critics have suggested that London's novels are episodic, resembling a series of interconnected short stories. Dale L. Walker elaborates:

The Star Rover, that magnificent experiment, is actually a series of short stories connected by a unifying device ... Smoke Bellew is a series of stories bound together in a novel-like form by their reappearing protagonist, Kit Bellew; and John Barleycorn ... is a synoptic series of short episodes.

Ambrose Bierce remarked of The Sea-Wolf that "the great thing—and it is among the greatest of things—is that tremendous creation, Wolf Larsen ... the hewing out and setting up of such a figure is enough for a man to do in one lifetime." However, Bierce also noted that "The love element, with its absurd suppressions, and impossible proprieties, is awful."

The Iron Heel exemplifies a dystopian novel, foreshadowing and influencing George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four. London's socialist political views are overtly presented. The Iron Heel aligns with the modern classification of soft science fiction. The Star Rover (1915) also falls within the science fiction genre.

Attribution of Credo to London Amidst Skepticism

London's literary executor, Irving Shepard, included a passage titled Jack London Credo in the introduction to a 1956 anthology of London's short stories:

Biographer Stasz observes that while the passage exhibits "many marks of London's style," only its initial sentence can be reliably ascribed to London. Shepard's quoted text originated from an article published in the San Francisco Bulletin on December 2, 1916, penned by journalist Ernest J. Hopkins, who had visited London's ranch merely weeks prior to the author's demise. Stasz further remarks that "Even more so than today journalists' quotes were unreliable or even sheer inventions," and confirms the absence of a direct textual source within London's own works. Nevertheless, Stasz identifies at least one line as authentic, citing London's personal reference and inscription in the autograph book of Australian suffragette Vida Goldstein:

Within his short story "By The Turtles of Tasman," a character, in defense of her "ne'er-do-well grasshopperish father" against her "antlike uncle," articulates: "... my father has been a king. He has lived .... Have you lived merely to live? Are you afraid to die? I'd rather sing one wild song and burst my heart with it, than live a thousand years watching my digestion and being afraid of the wet. When you are dust, my father will be ashes."

The Oxford Dictionary of American Quotations has recognized the final three sentences of the credo as an authentic quotation by Jack London. Similarly, National Public Radio has attributed this quotation to Jack London, clarifying its initial publication through a journalist, without challenging the reporter's accuracy from 1916.

A segment of this credo was employed to characterize the philosophy of the fictional figure James Bond in Ian Fleming's novel You Only Live Twice (1964) and subsequently in the film No Time to Die (2021). An article from The Independent in 2021, discussing the aforementioned Bond film, stated, "The quote was originally...by the American writer Jack London...."

The Diatribe on "The Scab": Unattributed Authorship

A concise diatribe titled "The Scab" is commonly cited within the U.S. labor movement and frequently ascribed to London. It commences with:

After God had finished the rattlesnake, the toad, and the vampire, he had some awful substance left with which he made a scab. A scab is a two-legged animal with a corkscrew soul, a water brain, a combination backbone of jelly and glue. Where others have hearts, he carries a tumor of rotten principles. When a scab comes down the street, men turn their backs and Angels weep in Heaven, and the Devil shuts the gates of hell to keep him out....

During 1913 and 1914, several newspapers published the initial three sentences, substituting "scab" with alternative terms such as "knocker", "stool pigeon" or "scandal monger". These publications, however, did not attribute the sentences to London.

The aforementioned passage became central to the 1974 Supreme Court case, Letter Carriers v. Austin, where Justice Thurgood Marshall characterized it as "a well-known piece of trade union literature, generally attributed to author Jack London". A union newsletter had previously disseminated a "list of scabs," which was acknowledged as factual and thus not libelous, but subsequently presented the passage as the "definition of a scab." The core issue of the case revolved around whether this "definition" constituted defamation. The court ultimately determined that "Jack London's... 'definition of a scab' is merely rhetorical hyperbole, a lusty and imaginative expression of the contempt felt by union members towards those who refuse to join," concluding that it was not libelous and therefore protected under the First Amendment.

Notwithstanding its frequent attribution to London, this passage is entirely absent from the comprehensive compilation of his works available on Sonoma State University's website. Conversely, in his publication War of the Classes, London included a 1903 speech also titled "The Scab," which offered a considerably more nuanced perspective on the subject:

An individual laborer who offers greater time, effort, or expertise for an equivalent wage, or comparable input for a reduced wage, is characterized as a 'scab.' Such actions, while seemingly generous, detrimentally impact fellow laborers by coercing them into similar concessions, thereby diminishing their access to essential provisions like food and shelter. However, a counterargument can be made for the 'scab.' Just as their conduct necessitates involuntary generosity from competitors, the circumstances of birth and upbringing can similarly compel their own seemingly generous actions.

No individual inherently seeks to be a 'scab,' meaning to maximize output for minimal compensation. Conversely, the fundamental aspiration of each person is to minimize effort for maximal gain. Consequently, within a highly competitive societal framework, ambitious individuals engage in intense struggle. Yet, regarding the crucial issue of distributing collective output, this conflict transcends individual competition, evolving into a struggle between distinct groups. Capital and labor collaborate to transform raw materials into valuable products, thereby augmenting their worth. Subsequently, they contend over the allocation of this newly created value. Neither party aims to provide the most for the least; instead, each endeavors to contribute less than the other while securing a greater share.

List of publications

Unless otherwise specified, Williams serves as the primary source.

Legacy and honors

Notes

References

Bibliography

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About Jack London

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