Saadi Shirazi

The Iranian Sufi poet, Saadi Shirazi (1210-1291), is celebrated for his profound literary contributions, distinguished by their exceptional merit and the deep social and ethical insights they convey.

Saadi holds widespread recognition as a preeminent poet within the classical literary canon, a distinction that led Persian scholars to bestow upon him epithets such as "The Master of Speech" or "The Wordsmith" (استاد سخن ostâd-e soxan), and simply "Master" (استاد ostâd). His influence extends to Western traditions, where his works are frequently cited. Notably, his seminal work, Bustan, was listed among the 100 greatest books of all time by The Guardian.

Biographical Context and Nomenclature

Born of Persian heritage, Abu Mohammad Moshrefoldin Mosleh ebn Abdollah ebn Mosharraf's exact birthdate remains unconfirmed, though scholarly consensus places it around 1209 or 1210. His origins trace to Shiraz, the contemporary provincial capital of Fars. From 1148 onwards, Shiraz was governed by the Salghurids, a Persianate dynasty with Turkoman roots.

Significant ambiguities persist regarding the biographical details of Saadi's life. While his literary works, notably the Bustan and Gulistan, incorporate numerous ostensibly autobiographical accounts, a considerable portion of these lack historical corroboration and are presumed to be either fictionalized or presented in the first person for rhetorical impact. Furthermore, even the earliest external literary references to Saadi exhibit critical discrepancies. His actual name also remains a subject of scholarly debate. Across various sources, his full name—comprising his given name, honorific (laqab), agnomen (kunya), and patronymic—is rendered with considerable orthographic variation.

The earliest extant source to record Saadi's complete name is Ibn al-Fuwati's (died 1323) Talḵiṣ al-majmaʿ al-ādāb fi moʿjam al-alqāb, translated as "Summary of the gathering of refinements concerning the lexicon of honorifics". In a 1262 letter, Ibn al-Fuwati requested examples of Saadi's Arabic poetry, identifying him by the full name "Muslih al-Din Abu Muhammad Abd-Allah ibn Musharrif". This particular rendition of his full name was endorsed by the Iranian scholar Saeed Nafisi. Conversely, most other academics prioritize the nomenclature presented in early manuscripts of Saadi's own works. For example, British Iranologist Edward Granville Browne, referencing a 1328 text, posited Saadi's full name as "Musharrif al-Din ibn Muslih al-Din Abd-Allah". A consensus among subsequent Western scholars, including Arthur John Arberry, Jan Rypka, and R. Davis, incorporates "Abd-Allah" into Saadi's patronymic, resulting in the form "Abu Abd-Allah Musharrif al-Din Muslih".

Iranian scholar Zabihollah Safa concluded that "Muslih" constituted Saadi's given name, presenting his full appellation as "Abu Muhammad Musharrif al-Din Muslih ibn Abd-Allah ibn Musharrif." This determination was based on the preface to one of the earliest extant compilations of Saadi's collected works, compiled in 1326 by his contemporary, Ali ibn Ahmad ibn Abu Bakr Bisotun. The Persian poet Jami (died 1492) offers an almost identical rendition of the name in his work, Nafahat al-Uns. This particular naming convention also receives corroboration from Iranologist Paul E. Losensky.

The pen name "Saadi" is unequivocally established, frequently appearing throughout his oeuvre and serving as his signature in all his ghazals (amatory poems or odes). Nevertheless, its etymology remains a subject of speculation. Given that two rulers from the Salghurid dynasty, both named "Sa'd," reigned for the majority of Saadi's lifetime, it is plausible that his pen name reflects an allegiance to this lineage. Iranian scholar Abdolhossein Zarrinkoob further posits that "Sa'd" or "Banu Sa'd" also designated the dynasty itself, suggesting Saadi's adoption of the name served as an affirmation of his loyalty.

Biography

Education and Travels

Saadi's initial education was seemingly provided by his father, who is also credited with imbuing him with enduring values of tolerance. His father's death during Saadi's adolescence rendered him an orphan. Circa 1223/24, coinciding with the brief deposition of Sa'd I by Ghiyath al-Din Pirshah, the teenage Saadi departed for Baghdad to pursue further education.

Badiozzaman Forouzanfar, an Iranian scholar, identified significant resemblances between Saadi's doctrines and those of the Sufi master Shihab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi, implying a potential association between them. Upon the completion of his academic pursuits, Saadi embarked on extensive travels throughout the Islamic world. Historical accounts suggest he killed a temple priest in India and was subsequently captured by Crusaders in Syria. However, Losensky notes that "Despite efforts of scholars such as H. Massé and J. A. Boyle, the effort to re-create an exact itinerary of his travels from his works is misguided." Further analysis by the Iranologist Homa Katouzian concluded that while Saadi likely visited Iraq, Syria, Palestine, and the Arabian Peninsula, his presence in eastern regions such as Khorasan, India, or Kashgar is improbable.

Saadi's Re-establishment in Shiraz

Following approximately three decades of travel, Saadi re-established himself in Shiraz in 1257, by which time he had evidently achieved considerable renown and respect as a poet. This esteemed reputation likely stemmed from the extensive dissemination of his ghazals. He demonstrated an eagerness to re-establish ties with the Salghurid dynasty, a fact underscored by the swift publication and dedications of his works, the Bustan and Gulistan. In a concise ode, Saadi attributes his return to Shiraz to the era of peace and prosperity inaugurated by the Salghurid ruler Abu Bakr ibn Sa'd (r. 1226–1260). Nevertheless, the Salghurid kingdom's longevity was brief subsequent to Saadi's return. In 1256/57, Abu Bakr formally recognized the Mongol Empire as his suzerain. Abu Bakr's death in 1260 was followed by his eldest son, Sa'd II, who perished a mere 12 days later. Saadi commemorated their deaths in several elegies. Subsequently, Sa'd II's 12-year-old son, Muhammad I ibn Sa'd, assumed rule under the regency of his mother, Tarkhan Khatun. Saadi's poetic works include commendations for both figures.

The Salghurid dynasty rapidly disintegrated under the intensifying pressure exerted by the Mongol Empire. After Muhammad I's demise, two nephews of Abu Bakr were successively enthroned as Salghurid rulers. Saadi dedicated three poems to the second of these, Saljuk Shah ibn Salghur, during his short five-month reign in 1263. An impetuous and alcohol-fueled rebellion by Saljuk Shah ibn Salghur led to his execution by the Mongols, who then formally transferred authority to Abish Khatun, the youngest daughter of Sa'd II. Nevertheless, Shiraz was effectively integrated into Mongol dominion through Abish Khatun's coerced marriage to Möngke Temür, son of Hulagu Khan (r. 1256–1265), the ruler of the Mongol Ilkhanate. It is highly probable that one of Saadi's poems was dedicated to Abish Khatun.

Saadi apparently did not endorse the ascendancy of the Mongol Empire. He authored two qasidas (odes), one in Arabic and one in Persian, lamenting the dissolution of the Abbasid caliphate and the demise of the final caliph, al-Musta'sim (r. 1242–1258), during the Mongol siege of Baghdad in 1258. Despite this apparent disapproval, Saadi also penned a poem commemorating the transfer of authority from the Salghurids to the Mongols. Furthermore, his collected works contain several poems with comparable dedications to both Mongol sovereigns and their Persian administrators.

Amir Ankyanu, a prominent figure, served as the governor of Shiraz from 1268 to 1272. Saadi dedicated four qasidas and the prose treatise Dar tarbiat-e yaki az moluk to him. Losensky notes that these compositions are not conventional panegyrics, but rather offer counsel and warnings regarding appropriate gubernatorial conduct. In contrast, Saadi's poems addressed to Shams al-Din Husayn Alakani, the long-serving chief of the chancery in Shiraz, exhibit a less admonitory tone. Shams al-Din Juvayni, the Ilkhanate's principal finance minister, appointed Alakani to this position. Saadi's most notable ghazals honor Shams al-Din Juvayni, alongside his brother Ata-Malik Juvayni, who authored Tarikh-i Jahangushay. Two treatises, frequently included in Saadi's collected works (though not penned by him), document his encounter with the Juvayni brothers and the Ilkhanate ruler Abaqa (r. 1265–1282) in Tabriz, which occurred during his return journey from a pilgrimage to Mecca. Furthermore, some of Saadi's earlier writings feature the Sahebiya, a collection of qit'a (monorhyme poetry) dedicated to Shams al-Din Juvayni.

Demise and Interment Location

The final datable poetic work by Saadi appears to be a concise qasida dedicated to Majd-al-Din Rumi, an administrative officer in Shiraz under the Ilkhanate ruler Arghun (r. 1284–1291) from 1287 to 1289. Saadi passed away in Shiraz a few years subsequent to this composition. Early historical accounts provide a range of death dates between 1291 and 1299. Following a meticulous review of extant evidence, Nafisi determined Saadi's death occurred on December 9, 1292. Conversely, Safa, referencing the Tarikh-i guzida (a reliable narrative penned in 1330 by Hamdallah Mustawfi and the earliest surviving account) along with other 14th-century sources, posits an earlier demise, specifically between November 25 and December 22, 1291. This earlier date offers a plausible explanation for the discrepancies in chronicles concerning Saadi's death, suggesting that commemorative records might have acknowledged either the year of his death or the subsequent year, following the traditional 40-day mourning period, given his passing in the final month of the year. Consequently, Losensky assigns Saadi's death date as either 1291 or 1292.

In 1765, the German cartographer and explorer Carsten Niebuhr documented his " Subsequently, the Zand ruler Karim Khan Zand (r. 1751–1779) commissioned extensive renovations. These included the installation of an iron railing encircling the gravestone and the construction of a brick and plaster edifice over the burial site.

Literary Contributions

The Bustan and Gulistan

Saadi's most celebrated literary achievements are the Bustan (The Orchard), finalized in 1257, and the Gulistan (The Rose Garden), completed in 1258. The Bustan is composed entirely in epic verse, presenting narratives that exemplify core Islamic virtues such as justice, generosity, humility, and contentment, alongside contemplations on the conduct and ecstatic rituals of dervishes. In contrast, the Gulistan is predominantly a prose work, featuring a collection of tales and personal reminiscences. This text is enriched with numerous short poems that offer aphorisms, guidance, and witty observations, underscoring Saadi's deep insight into the inherent absurdities of human existence. A recurring theme contrasts the precariousness of those reliant on the capricious dispositions of monarchs with the unconstrained liberty of dervishes.

Saadi articulates the significance of vocational skills, stating:

O darlings of your fathers, learn the trade because property and riches of the world are not to be relied upon; also silver and gold are an occasion of danger because either a thief may steal them at once or the owner spend them gradually; but a profession is a living fountain and permanent wealth; and although a professional man may lose riches, it does not matter because a profession is itself wealth and wherever you go you will enjoy respect and sit on high places, whereas those who have no trade will glean crumbs and see hardships.

Saadi is recognized as both a panegyrist and a lyricist, having authored numerous odes that explore the human condition. Notable among these is a lament commemorating the fall of Baghdad following the Mongol invasion in 1258. His lyrical compositions are compiled in Ghazaliyat (Lyrics), while his odes appear in Qasa'id (Odes). Additionally, he produced several works in Arabic.

Within the Bustan, Saadi recounts the narrative of a man describing his experiences in combat against the Mongols:

In Isfahan, I once had a friend who was bellicose, spirited, and astute....After a considerable time, I encountered him again and exclaimed, "O tiger-seizer! What has rendered you as decrepit as an old fox?"

He responded with a laugh, stating: "Since the period of conflict with the Mongols, I have banished all thoughts of combat from my mind. I witnessed the land covered with spears, resembling a dense reed forest. I stirred the dust of battle like smoke; however, when fortune is unpropitious, what purpose does fury serve? I am a warrior capable of dislodging a ring from a hand with a spear during combat; yet, as my destiny was unfavorable, they surrounded me completely. I seized the chance to flee, recognizing that only a fool contends with fate. How could my helmet and cuirass protect me when my auspicious star offered no favor? When the means to victory are absent, no one can force open the gates of conquest through sheer strength."

The adversaries resembled a pack of leopards, possessing the strength of elephants. The heads of the valiant warriors were encased in iron, as were the hooves of their horses. We spurred our Arab steeds forward like a storm cloud, and when the two armies clashed, it seemed as though the sky had descended to the earth. A tempest of death erupted everywhere, with arrows raining down like hail. Every soldier emerging from the battle had a blood-soaked cuirass. This was not due to dull swords, but rather the retribution of malevolent stars. Overwhelmed, we capitulated, akin to a fish, protected by scales, yet ensnared by a baited hook. As Fortune had turned away, our shields proved futile against the arrows of Fate.

Ghazals

The Ghazals of Saadi constitute a compilation of poems authored by Saadi in the ghazal form. Multiple critical editions of these poems have been released by scholars specializing in Persian language and literature. Saadi is credited with composing approximately 700 ghazals. In crafting his ghazals, Saadi notably drew inspiration from the linguistic styles of Sanai and Anvari. Numerous experts contend that the ghazal form attained its zenith in the poetic works of Saadi and Hafez.

Love serves as the predominant theme in the majority of Saadi's ghazals. He stands out among poets whose romantic ghazals maintain an unwavering focus on love throughout. These romantic compositions are celebrated for their simplicity, purity, and grounded nature. Furthermore, Saadi meticulously incorporated circular meters—musical rhythms like "fa’alātun fā’ilātun fa’alātun fā’ilātun" or "mufta’ilun mafā’ilun mufta’ilun mafā’ilun"—into the structure of his ghazals.

Beyond his romantic ghazals, Saadi also authored mystical and didactic ghazals. During the editorial process of Saadi's collected works, Foroughi segregated the mystical and didactic ghazals, compiling them into a distinct chapter titled "Admonitions."

Saadi's ghazals are compiled into four distinct volumes: Tayyibat, Bada’i, Khawatim, and Ghazaliyat-e Qadim. The Ghazaliyat-e Qadim were penned by Saadi during his youth, characterized by their fervent passion and enthusiasm. The Khawatim are associated with Saadi's later years, encompassing themes of asceticism, mysticism, and morality. Both Bada’i and Tayyibat originate from his middle age, exhibiting a blend of youthful ardor and the ascetic, mystical inclinations of old age. From an artistic perspective, Tayyibat and Bada’i are considered superior to the other two sections. Certain editions of Saadi's collected works feature a separate section for multilingual ghazals (composed in both Persian and Arabic), titled "Multilingual Ghazals." However, Mohammad Ali Foroughi asserts that this categorization is erroneous, as it lacks presence in earlier manuscripts.

Works in Arabic

Although Saadi did not produce an independent work in Arabic, he did compose several poems in the language, comprising various qasidas (odes), qit'a, and individual verses. In 2011, the Saadi Studies Center published a compilation of his Arabic works, titled Saadi's Arabic Poems, which included Persian translations. While the orientalist Edward Browne assessed Saadi's Arabic poems as being of average quality, Musa Anwar, after comparing them to the works of contemporary Arabic-speaking poets, concluded that they occupy a respectable position and possess significant value in terms of both content and structure. Anwar also noted the presence of some grammatical inaccuracies within Saadi's Arabic compositions.

Other Literary Works

Saadi authored four collections of ghazals (love poems) and numerous longer mono-rhyme qasidas in both Persian and Arabic. His oeuvre also includes quatrains, shorter poetic pieces, and some minor works in both prose and verse. He is recognized alongside Rumi and Hafez as one of the three most eminent ghazal writers in Persian poetry.

Bani Adam

Saadi is renowned for his aphorisms, the most celebrated of which, Bani Adam, is featured in the Gulistan. This aphorism subtly advocates for the dismantling of all divisions among human beings:

The original Persian text is presented below:

بنى آدم اعضای یک پیکرند
که در آفرینش ز یک گوهرند

چو عضوى بدرد آورَد روزگار
دگر عضوها را نمانَد قرار

تو کز محنت دیگران بی غمی
نشاید که نامت نهند آدمی

banī ādam a'zā-ye yekpeikar-and

ke dar āfarīn-aš ze yek gowhar-and

čo 'ozvī be dard āvarad rūzgār

degar 'ozvhā-rā na-mānad qarār

to k-az mehnat-ē dīgarān bīqam-ī

na-šāyad ke nām-at nahand ādamī

A literal translation of the preceding verses is provided below:

"The children of Adam are the members of one body,
who are in their creation from the same essence.
If one member is injured,
other members will also feel pain.
If you are unsympathetic to the misery of others,
it is not right that they should call you a human being."

The version featuring yekdīgar, meaning "one another," is the commonly cited rendition in Iran. This version appears in prominent contexts such as Mohammad Ali Foroughi's well-known edition, on the carpet installed at the United Nations building in New York in 2005, on the Iranian 500-rial coin since 1387 Solar Hijri calendar (corresponding to 2008), and on the reverse of the 100,000-rial banknote issued in 2010. According to the scholar Habib Yaghmai, this is also the sole version found in the earliest manuscripts, which date to within 50 years of the Golestan's composition. However, some publications present a variation, banī ādam a'zā-ye yek peykar-and ("The sons of Adam are members of one body"), a rendition that aligns more closely with the hadith cited subsequently and is adopted by most English translations.

The following verse translation is rendered by H. Vahid Dastjerdi:

Adam's sons are body limbs, to say;
For they're created of the same clay.
Should one organ be troubled by pain,
Others would suffer severe strain.
Thou, careless of people's suffering,
Deserve not the name, "human being".

This verse translation is provided by Ali Salami:

Human beings are limbs of one body indeed;
For, they're created of the same soul and seed.
When one limb is afflicted with pain,
Other limbs will feel the bane.
He who has no sympathy for human suffering,
Is not worthy of being called a human being.

And by Richard Jeffrey Newman:

All men and women are to each other
the limbs of a single body, each of us drawn
from life's shimmering essence, God's perfect pearl;
and when this life we share wounds one of us,
all share the hurt as if it were our own.
You, who will not feel another's pain,
you forfeit the right to be called human.

United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon, speaking in Tehran, remarked: "At the entrance of the United Nations there is a magnificent carpet – I think the largest carpet the United Nations has – that adorns the wall of the United Nations, a gift from the people of Iran. Alongside it are the wonderful words of that great Persian poet, Sa’adi":

All human beings are members of one frame,
Since all, at first, from the same essence came.
When time afflicts a limb with pain
The other limbs at rest cannot remain.
If thou feel not for other's misery
A human being is no name for thee.

Mohammad Ali Zarif, former Iranian Foreign Minister and Envoy to the United Nations, clarified that this carpet, installed in 2005, is actually displayed in a meeting room within the United Nations building in New York, rather than at the entrance.

The British rock band Coldplay incorporated Bani Adam into their song بنی آدم, noting that the title Bani Adam is rendered in Persian script. This track appears on their 2019 album, Everyday Life.

This particular rendition was presented by Bowinn Ma, Minister of State for Infrastructure for British Columbia, Canada, within the BC Parliament.

Human beings are members of a whole
In creation, of one essence and soul
If one member is inflicted with pain
Other members, uneasy will remain
If you have no sympathy for human pain
The name of human you cannot retain.

Legacy and Poetic Style

Saadi delineated a clear distinction between the spiritual and the practical, or mundane, dimensions of existence. For instance, in his Bustan, the spiritual aspect of Saadi's writing employs the earthly world as a launchpad to transcend terrestrial boundaries. The imagery within Bustan is characterized by its delicate and soothing qualities. Conversely, in the Gulistan, the more pragmatic Saadi grounds the spiritual to resonate with the experiences of his fellow travelers. Here, the imagery is vivid and, owing to Saadi's skill, leaves a lasting impression on the reader. This conceptual division also holds a realistic validity: a Sheikh delivering sermons in a Khanqah inhabits a vastly different reality from a merchant traversing various towns. Saadi's unique contribution lies in his embodiment of both the Sufi Sheikh and the itinerant merchant, representing, as he articulated, "two almond kernels in the same shell."

Saadi's prose style, characterized as "simple but impossible to imitate," exhibits a natural and effortless fluidity. Nevertheless, its apparent simplicity is underpinned by a complex semantic framework comprising synonymy, homophony, and oxymoron, further reinforced by internal rhythm and external rhyme.

Prominently among the works influenced by Saadi is Goethe's West-Oestlicher Divan. Andre du Ryer introduced Saadi to the Western world through a partial French translation of Gulistan in 1634. Subsequently, Adam Olearius provided a complete German translation of both the Bustan and the Gulistan in 1654.

In his Lectures on Aesthetics, Hegel articulated (from On the Arts, translated by Henry Paolucci, 2001, pp. 155–157):

Pantheistic poetry has had, it must be said, a higher and freer development in the Islamic world, especially among the Persians ... The full flowering of Persian poetry comes at the height of its complete transformation in speech and national character, through Mohammedanism ... In later times, poetry of this order [Ferdowsi's epic poetry] had a sequel in love epics of extraordinary tenderness and sweetness; but there followed also a turn toward the didactic, where, with a rich experience of life, the far-traveled Saadi was master before it submerged itself in the depths of the pantheistic mysticism taught and recommended in the extraordinary tales and legendary narrations of the great Jalal-ed-Din Rumi.

The renowned Russian poet Alexander Pushkin incorporated a quotation from Saadi into his work Eugene Onegin, stating, "as Saadi sang in earlier ages, 'some are far distant, some are dead'." Saadi's Gulistan also influenced the fables composed by Jean de La Fontaine. In his work DLXXXVIII A Parable on Persecution, Benjamin Franklin quoted a parable from Saadi's Bustan, apparently without attributing the source. Ralph Waldo Emerson also demonstrated an interest in Saadi's literary contributions, personally assisting with several translated editions. Despite accessing Saadi's works solely through translation, Emerson likened their wisdom and narrative elegance to that of the Bible.

The French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot received his third given name, Sadi, in homage to Saadi. This choice was made by his father, Lazare Carnot, who held a profound admiration for Saadi and his poetic works.

Voltaire expressed considerable enthusiasm for Saadi's compositions, particularly Gulistan, and reportedly relished being referred to as "Saadi" by his associates.

On March 20, 2009, U.S. President Barack Obama cited the opening couplet of this poem during his New Year's address to the Iranian populace, stating: "But let us remember the words that were written by the poet Saadi, so many years ago: 'The children of Adam are limbs to each other, having been created of one essence.'"

A crater on the planet Mercury was designated in Saadi's honor in 1976.

National Commemoration of 'Saadi Day'

Each year, on April 21st (or April 20th during leap years), a significant number of international visitors and Iranian citizens convene at Saadi's mausoleum to observe this commemorative day.

This observance occurs on the 1st of Ordibehesht, which is the second month of the Solar Hijri calendar. This date corresponds to the day Saadi reportedly completed Gulistan in 1256.

Mausoleum

Islamic scholars

• Islamic scholars
• List of Persian poets and authors
• Persian literature in the West
• Tomb of Anarkali

Noted Saadi researchers

• Mohammad Ali Foroughi
• Hossein Elahi Ghomshei
• Kavoos Hasanli
• Ziya Movahed

Notes

References

• Browne, E.G. (1906, reprinted 1956). Literary History of Persia, volume 2: From Firdawsí to Sa'dí. Cambridge University Press.
• Chopra, R.M., "Great Poets of Classical Persian", Sparrow Publication, Kolkata, 2014, (ISBN 978-81-89140-75-5).
• Homerin, Th. Emil (1983). "Sa'di's Somnatiyah". Iranian Studies, Vol. 16, No. 1/2 (Winter - Spring, 1983), pp. 31–50.
• Ingenito, Domenico (2020). Beholding Beauty: Sa'di of Shiraz and the Aesthetics of Desire in Medieval Persian Poetry. Brill.
• Katouzian, Homa (2006). Sa'di, the Poet of Life, Love and Compassion (A comprehensive study of Sa'di and his works). 2006. ISBN 1-85168-473-5
• Southgate, Minoo S. (1984). "Men, Women, and Boys: Love and Sex in the Works of Sa'di". Iranian Studies, Vol. 17, No. 4 (Autumn, 1984), pp. 413–452.
• Wickens, G.M. (1985), The Bustan of Sheikh Moslehedin Saadi Shirazi (English translation and the Persian original). 1985. Iranian National Commission for Unesco, No. 46.
• Rypka, Jan (1968). History of Iranian Literature. Reidel Publishing Company. OCLC 460598. ISBN 90-277-0143-1
• Thackston, W. M. (2008). The Gulistan of Sa'di. (Bilingual. English translation, Persian text on facing page). ISBN 978-1-58814-058-6.
• Ashraf, Ahmad (2006). "Iranian identity iii. Medieval Islamic period". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. XIII/5: Iran X. Religions in Iran–Iraq V. Safavid period. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 507–522. ISBN 978-0-933273-93-1.Davis, R. (1995). "Saʿdī". In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. & Lecomte, G. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume VIII: Ned–Sam. Leiden: E. J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09834-3.Lewis, Franklin (2001). "Golestān-e Saʿdi". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. XI/1: Giōni–Golšani. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 79–86. ISBN 978-0-933273-60-3.Losensky, Paul (2000). "Saʿdi". Encyclopaedia Iranica.Along the Silk Roads in Mongol Eurasia: Generals, Merchants, and Intellectuals. University of California Press, pp. 270–289. ISBN 978-0520298743.
• Rypka, Jan (1968). History of Iranian Literature. Springer Netherlands. ISBN 978-9401034814.Encyclopaedia Iranica.Encyclopædia Iranica, Vol. II/8: Aśoka IV–Āṯār al-Wozarāʾ. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 894–896. ISBN 978-0-71009-108-6.Encyclopædia Iranica, Vol. IV/6: Burial II–Calendars II. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 573–574. ISBN 978-0-71009-129-1.Ingenito, Domenico (2020). Beholding Beauty: Sa'di of Shiraz and the Aesthetics of Desire in Medieval Persian Poetry. Brill.
  • Ingenito, Domenico (2020). Beholding Beauty: Sa'di of Shiraz and the Aesthetics of Desire in Medieval Persian Poetry. Brill.
  • Mattock, J.N. (1989). "The Early History of the Maqama." Journal of Arabic Literature, Vol. 25, pp. 1–18.
  • Quotations related to Saadi at Wikiquote
  • Media related to Sa'di at Wikimedia Commons
  • Works by or about Saadi Shirazi at the Internet Archive
  • The Bustan of Saadi 1911 English edition by A. Hart Edwards
  • The Bustan of Saadi, English translation, 74 p., Iran Chamber
  • (in English and Arabic) "Verses in Persian and Chaghatay" featuring work by Sa'di, c. 1600
  • News story about United Nations "Bani Adam" carpet
• Bani Adam recited in Persian by Amir H. Ghaseminejad
• Introduction to the Golestan recited in Persian by Hamidreza Mohammadi