Alfred Lothar Wegener (; German: [ˈʔalfʁeːt ˈveːɡənɐ]; 1 November 1880 – November 1930) was a German scholar whose expertise spanned climatology, geology, geophysics, meteorology, and polar research.
Alfred Lothar Wegener (; German: [ˈʔalfʁeːtˈveːɡənɐ]; 1 November 1880 – November 1930) was a German climatologist, geologist, geophysicist, meteorologist, and polar researcher.
While recognized during his lifetime primarily for his contributions to meteorology and pioneering polar exploration, Wegener is now predominantly remembered as the progenitor of the continental drift hypothesis, which he proposed in 1912, positing that continents gradually migrate across the Earth's surface (German: Kontinentalverschiebung).
The geological community did not widely accept his hypothesis until the 1950s, a period when various scientific advancements, including palaeomagnetism, offered compelling evidence for continental drift, thus establishing a fundamental framework for the contemporary plate tectonics model.
Prior to the acceptance of the jet stream's existence, Wegener participated in multiple Greenland expeditions, aiming to investigate polar air circulation. Participants in these expeditions conducted extensive meteorological observations, becoming the first to spend winter on the inland Greenland ice sheet and the first to extract ice cores from an active Arctic glacier.
Biography
Early Life and Education
Born in Berlin on 1 November 1880, Alfred Wegener was the youngest of five children to Richard and Anna Wegener. His father served as a theologian and an instructor of classical languages at both the Joachimsthalschen Gymnasium and the Berlinisches Gymnasium zum Grauen Kloster. In 1886, the family acquired a former manor house near Rheinsberg, which they utilized as a holiday residence.
Wegener pursued his secondary education at the Köllnische Gymnasium on Wallstrasse in Berlin, where he completed his Abitur in 1899, achieving the highest academic standing in his graduating class.
Wegener undertook studies in physics, meteorology, and astronomy at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin, supplementing his curriculum with two external semesters at Heidelberg and Innsbruck. Among his instructors were Wilhelm Förster, specializing in astronomy, and Max Planck, focusing on thermodynamics.
Between 1902 and 1903, while still a student, he served as an assistant at the Urania astronomical observatory. In 1905, he successfully defended his doctoral dissertation, which explored the application of astronomical data from Alfonsine tables to contemporary computational methodologies, under the guidance of Julius Bauschinger and Wilhelm Förster. Although he earned his doctorate in astronomy, Wegener consistently held a profound interest in the nascent fields of meteorology and climatology, subsequently directing his research toward these disciplines.
In 1905, Wegener commenced his role as an assistant at the Aeronautisches Observatorium Lindenberg, situated near Beeskow. He collaborated there with his brother Kurt, who also pursued scientific interests in meteorology and polar research. Together, they innovated the application of weather balloons for monitoring air masses. During a balloon ascent conducted for meteorological investigations and to evaluate a celestial navigation technique employing a specific type of quadrant ("Libellenquadrant"), the Wegener brothers established a new record for continuous balloon flight, sustaining an airborne duration of 52.5 hours from 5–7 April 1906. His observations from this period at the Observatorium substantially advanced the field of atmospheric physics.
First Greenland Expedition and Marburg Years
In 1906, Wegener embarked on the first of his four Greenland expeditions, an experience he later considered a pivotal moment in his life. The Denmark expedition, led by Ludvig Mylius-Erichsen, aimed to survey the final unexplored segment of Greenland's northeastern coast. During this expedition, Wegener established Greenland's inaugural meteorological station near Danmarkshavn, from which he deployed kites and tethered balloons to gather meteorological data within an Arctic climate zone. It was also during this period that Wegener first encountered mortality in an icy wilderness, when the expedition leader and two associates perished during a reconnaissance journey conducted with sled dogs.
Following his return in 1908 and continuing until the outbreak of World War I, Wegener served as a lecturer at the University of Marburg, specializing in meteorology, applied astronomy, and cosmic physics. Both his students and colleagues at Marburg highly regarded his exceptional talent for articulating intricate subjects and contemporary research discoveries with clarity and comprehensibility, all while maintaining rigorous precision. His instructional material subsequently evolved into a foundational meteorological textbook, initially drafted between 1909 and 1910, titled Thermodynamik der Atmosphäre (Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere), which integrated numerous findings from the Greenland expedition.
On January 6, 1912, Wegener formally introduced his initial hypothesis of continental drift during a lecture delivered to the Geologische Vereinigung (Geological Association) at the Senckenberg Museum in Frankfurt am Main. Later that same year, he further elaborated on this theory through an extensive, three-part article and a concise summary.
Second Greenland Expedition
The conceptualization of a subsequent Greenland expedition stemmed from the dissatisfaction experienced by Wegener and Johan Peter Koch regarding the disorganization and limited scientific outcomes of the preceding Danmark expedition. This new Danish Expedition to Queen Louise Land was planned for 1912–1913, comprising a team of only four individuals, with Koch designated as the leader.
Following a stopover in Iceland for the acquisition and evaluation of ponies as pack animals, the expedition reached Danmarkshavn. Prior to their journey onto the inland ice, the expedition faced near-catastrophic destruction by a calving glacier. During this event, Koch sustained a broken leg from a fall into a glacier crevasse, necessitating several months of recovery. Wegener and Koch subsequently became the first individuals to overwinter on the inland ice of northeast Greenland. Within their shelter, they conducted drilling operations to a depth of 25 meters using an auger. In the summer of 1913, the team traversed the inland ice, with the four expedition members covering a distance twice that of Fridtjof Nansen's 1888 southern Greenland crossing. Merely a few kilometers from the western Greenland settlement of Kangersuatsiaq, the small team depleted their food supplies while navigating challenging glacial break-up terrain. However, at a critical juncture, after consuming their last pony and dog, they were rescued at a fjord by the clergyman of Upernavik, who was coincidentally visiting a remote congregation.
Family
Subsequently, in 1913, following his return, Wegener married Else Köppen, who was the daughter of his former instructor and mentor, the distinguished meteorologist Wladimir Köppen. The couple established residence in Marburg, where Wegener recommenced his university lecturing duties. Their two elder daughters, Hilde (1914–1936) and Sophie ("Käte", 1918–2012), were born there. Their third daughter, Hanna Charlotte ("Lotte", 1920–1989), was born in Hamburg. Lotte later married the renowned Austrian mountaineer and adventurer Heinrich Harrer in 1938, while in 1939, Käte married Siegfried Uiberreither, who served as an Austrian Nazi Gauleiter of Styria.
World War I
Upon the commencement of the First World War in 1914, Wegener, serving as an infantry reserve officer, was promptly mobilized. He participated in intense combat on the Belgian front; however, his active service tenure was brief, lasting only a few months. Following two injuries, he was deemed unsuitable for frontline duty and subsequently reassigned to the army weather service. This role necessitated continuous travel among various meteorological stations located in Germany, the Balkans, the Western Front, and the Baltic region.
Despite these circumstances, in 1915, he successfully completed the initial version of his seminal work, Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane ("The Origin of Continents and Oceans"). His brother, Kurt, noted that Alfred Wegener's primary motivation was to "reestablish the connection between geophysics on the one hand and geography and geology on the other, which had become completely ruptured because of the specialized development of these branches of science."
Nevertheless, interest in this concise publication remained limited, partly attributable to the prevailing wartime instability. By the conclusion of the conflict, Wegener had authored nearly 20 further meteorological and geophysical papers, consistently exploring novel scientific domains. In 1917, he conducted a scientific examination of the Treysa meteorite.
Postwar Period
In 1919, Wegener assumed leadership of the Meteorological Department at the German Maritime Observatory (Deutsche Seewarte), succeeding Köppen, and relocated to Hamburg with his family. Additionally, in 1921, he received an appointment as a senior lecturer at the newly established University of Hamburg. Between 1919 and 1923, Wegener undertook pioneering research in paleoclimatology, reconstructing past climates in close collaboration with Milutin Milanković. This endeavor led to the 1924 publication of Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit ("The Climates of the Geological Past"), co-authored with his father-in-law, Wladimir Köppen. The third, comprehensively revised edition of "The Origin of Continents and Oceans" was released in 1922, initiating widespread discussion of his continental drift theory, initially within German-speaking regions and subsequently on an international scale. However, the theory encountered substantial criticism from the majority of scientific experts.
In 1924, Wegener secured a professorship in meteorology and geophysics at Graz, a role characterized by both stability and a lack of administrative responsibilities. His research focused on atmospheric physics, optics, and the investigation of tornadoes. Having already dedicated several years to tornado research, he had published the inaugural comprehensive European tornado climatology in 1917. Furthermore, he proposed theories regarding tornado vortex structures and their formation mechanisms. The scientific analysis of his second Greenland expedition, encompassing ice measurements and atmospheric optics, persisted throughout the remainder of the 1920s.
In November 1926, Wegener formally presented his continental drift theory at a symposium hosted by the American Association of Petroleum Geologists in New York City; however, it was largely rejected by attendees, with the exception of the chairman. The fourth and definitive expanded edition of "The Origin of Continents and Oceans" was subsequently published three years later.
Third Greenland Expedition
From April to October 1929, Wegener undertook his third expedition to Greenland, an endeavor that served as preparatory work for the German Greenland Expedition he intended to lead in 1930–1931.
Fourth Greenland Expedition and Demise
Wegener's final expedition to Greenland commenced in 1930. Under his direction, 14 participants were tasked with establishing three permanent stations to facilitate measurements of the Greenland ice sheet's thickness and conduct year-round Arctic weather observations. Transportation across the ice cap involved two innovative, propeller-driven snowmobiles, supplemented by ponies and dog sleds. Wegener bore a profound personal responsibility for the expedition's success, particularly given the German government's substantial financial contribution of $120,000 (equivalent to $1.5 million in 2007). The expedition's viability hinged upon the successful transfer of adequate provisions from the West camp to Eismitte ("mid-ice," also designated as Central Station) to sustain two individuals through the winter; this critical requirement influenced the fateful decision that ultimately led to his demise. A delayed thaw caused the expedition to fall six weeks behind schedule. Consequently, as summer concluded, the personnel stationed at Eismitte communicated their critical shortage of fuel and their intention to return by October 20.
On September 24, despite route markers being largely obscured by snow, Wegener, accompanied by thirteen Greenlanders and his meteorologist Fritz Loewe, departed to resupply the camp via dog sled. During this arduous journey, temperatures plummeted to −60 °C (−76 °F), resulting in severe frostbite to Loewe's toes, necessitating their amputation with a penknife, performed without anesthesia. Subsequently, twelve of the Greenlanders returned to the West camp. By October 19, the three remaining expedition members successfully reached Eismitte.
Johannes Georgi, an expedition member, initially calculated that provisions at Eismitte were sufficient for only three individuals. Consequently, Wegener and Rasmus Villumsen, a 27-year-old indigenous Greenlander, departed for the West camp with two dog sleds. Georgi subsequently determined that his initial assessment of supplies was inaccurate, indicating that Wegener and Villumsen could have successfully wintered at Eismitte. Lacking dog food, they progressively culled the animals to sustain the remaining ones, eventually reducing their transport capacity to a single sled. Villumsen rode the sled, while Wegener was compelled to travel on skis; however, they failed to reach their intended camp. Wegener perished in his tent approximately 90 miles from Eismitte and received a provisional burial, marked by his skis placed vertically in the snow. Villumsen continued his journey but was never seen again. Six months subsequent to these events, on May 12, 1931, Wegener's skis were located. Expedition personnel constructed a pyramid-shaped mausoleum of ice and snow, where Alfred Wegener's remains were interred. At 50 years old and a heavy smoker, Wegener's death was attributed to heart failure, likely induced by extreme physical exertion. In July, Kurt Wegener assumed leadership of the expedition, adhering to the contingency plan established for such circumstances.
The Theory of Continental Drift
Wegener initially conceived this concept by observing the apparent congruence of Earth's major landmasses, resembling pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. Specifically, the continental shelf of the Americas exhibits a close fit with those of Africa and Europe. Similarly, Antarctica, Australia, India, and Madagascar align adjacent to the southern extremity of Africa. However, Wegener only disseminated his hypothesis subsequent to encountering a 1911 publication that critiqued the prevailing theory of a land bridge connecting Europe and America, citing its inconsistency with isostasy. Primarily a meteorologist, Wegener sought to participate in the Denmark-Greenland expedition slated for mid-1912. He formally introduced his continental drift hypothesis on January 6, 1912. His research involved analyzing the geological characteristics, structural formations, and fossil records on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. This analysis revealed substantial similarities between corresponding continental margins, particularly concerning fossilized flora.
Commencing in 1912, Wegener publicly championed the concept of "continental drift," positing that all continents were formerly united as a singular landmass before subsequently separating. He theorized that the driving forces behind this drift could be the Earth's rotational centrifugal force ("Polflucht") or astronomical precession. Wegener further hypothesized about seafloor spreading and the function of mid-ocean ridges, articulating that "the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ... [is a] zone in which the floor of the Atlantic, as it keeps spreading, is continuously tearing open and making space for fresh, relatively fluid and hot sima [rising] from depth." Nevertheless, he did not elaborate on these specific ideas in his subsequent publications.
In 1915, Wegener synthesized multidisciplinary evidence in the initial German edition of his book, Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane, to propose the theory of a primordial supercontinent, which he designated "Urkontinent" (German for "primal continent," conceptually similar to the Greek "Pangaea," meaning "All-Lands" or "All-Earth"). Subsequent editions published throughout the 1920s provided additional supporting evidence. The inaugural English translation, titled The Origin of Continents and Oceans, appeared in 1924, based on the third German edition from 1922. The final German edition, released in 1929, included the notable observation that shallower oceanic basins exhibited greater geological youth. This edition remained untranslated into English until 1962.
Preceding proponents of various continental dynamics theories include Abraham Ortelius, Antonio Snider-Pellegrini, Eduard Suess, Roberto Mantovani, Otto Ampferer, and Frank Bursley Taylor.
Scholarly Responses
While Wegener's research provided substantial observational evidence supporting continental drift, the proposed mechanism presented a significant challenge, partly due to his overestimation of continental motion velocity at 250 cm per year. (The contemporary accepted rate for the divergence of the Americas from Europe and Africa is approximately 2.5 cm per year.)
Although Wegener's continental drift hypothesis garnered early support from figures like Alexander Du Toit (South Africa), Arthur Holmes (England), and Milutin Milanković (Serbia)—who utilized it as a foundation for polar wandering research—it initially encountered considerable skepticism from the geological community. Geologists often perceived Wegener as an outsider, leading to resistance against his proposed changes to established paradigms. The German geologist Max Semper notably authored a critique of the theory, concluding with a sarcastic remark directed at Wegener:
"...one can only request that the necessary distance be maintained and that geology cease to be honored in the future, urging instead a focus on specialized fields that have, until now, neglected to inscribe above their entrance: 'Oh holy Saint Florian, spare this house, set others on fire!'" (Max Semper, 1917)
Despite the prevailing skepticism, the distinguished Swiss geologist Émile Argand publicly endorsed Wegener's theory during his inaugural address at the 1922 International Geological Congress.
The sole American edition of Wegener's treatise, released in 1925, was characterized by a "dogmatic style that often results from German translations," potentially hindering its reception. In 1926, Willem van der Gracht spearheaded the organization of a symposium by the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, focusing on the continental drift hypothesis. Opponents, including the Leipzig-based geologist Franz Kossmat, contended that the rigidity of the oceanic crust precluded continents from "simply plough[ing] through" it.
As early as 1910, Wegener posited that the continents originally conjoined not at their present shorelines, but approximately 200 meters below, aligning precisely at the continental shelf level. A significant factor contributing to the initial rejection of Wegener's concepts was the widespread misinterpretation that he proposed continental fit along the contemporary coastline. Charles Schuchert articulated this point:
"During this vast time [of the split of Pangea] the sea waves have been continuously pounding against Africa and Brazil and in many places rivers have been bringing into the ocean great amounts of eroded material, yet everywhere the geographic shore lines are said to have remained practically unchanged! It apparently makes no difference to Wegener how hard or how soft are the rocks of these shore lines, what are their geological structures that might aid or retard land or marine erosion, how often the strand lines have been elevated or depressed, and how far peneplanation has gone on during each period of continental stability. Furthermore, sea-level in itself has not been constant, especially during the Pleistocene, when the lands were covered by millions of square miles of ice made from water subtracted out of the oceans. In the equatorial regions, this level fluctuated three times during the Pleistocene, and during each period of ice accumulation the sea-level sank about 250 feet [75 m]."
Wegener himself attended this lecture but refrained from defending his work, potentially due to an insufficient proficiency in English.
In 1943, George Gaylord Simpson published a robust critique of Wegener's theory, simultaneously challenging the competing hypothesis of sunken land bridges. Simpson presented evidence suggesting that biogeographical similarities between continents were more adequately explained by the concept of fixed landmasses periodically connected and disconnected by flooding, a theory termed permanentism. Alexander du Toit subsequently authored a rejoinder to Simpson's arguments the following year.
Alfred Wegener is often inaccurately portrayed as an isolated genius whose continental drift theory faced universal rejection until long after his demise. In reality, the fundamental principles of the theory achieved broad acceptance among European researchers as early as the 1920s, with subsequent debates primarily concerning specific intricacies. Nevertheless, the theory's adoption in North America proceeded at a slower pace.
Modern Developments
The early 1950s witnessed the emergence of paleomagnetism, a novel scientific discipline spearheaded by S. K. Runcorn at the University of Cambridge and P.M.S. Blackett at Imperial College. This field rapidly generated empirical data that supported Wegener's theory. By early 1953, analyses of samples from India indicated the subcontinent's prior location in the Southern Hemisphere, consistent with Wegener's predictions. By 1959, the accumulation of corroborating data began to shift scientific opinion, particularly within the United Kingdom, culminating in a Royal Society symposium on the subject in 1964.
The 1960s marked significant geological advancements, particularly the discoveries of seafloor spreading and Wadati–Benioff zones, which rapidly revitalized the continental drift hypothesis, leading to the emergence of plate tectonics theory. Marie Tharp's maps detailing ocean floor geomorphology, developed in collaboration with Bruce Heezen, were instrumental in initiating this paradigm shift. Consequently, Wegener gained recognition as a foundational figure in one of the twentieth century's most significant scientific revolutions.
The introduction of the Global Positioning System (GPS) in 1993 enabled direct measurement of continental drift.
Awards and Honors
The Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, located in Bremerhaven, Germany, was established in 1980 to commemorate Wegener's centenary and awards the Wegener Medal in his honor. Several geographical and astronomical features bear his name, including the Wegener crater on the Moon, the Wegener crater on Mars, asteroid 29227 Wegener, the Wegener Peninsula in Eastern Greenland, and the peninsula near Ummannaq in Western Greenland where he died, situated at 71°12′N 51°50′W.
The European Geosciences Union confers an Alfred Wegener Medal & Honorary Membership upon scientists who have attained exceptional international recognition for their merit and scientific contributions across the atmospheric, hydrological, or ocean sciences, broadly defined.
Selected Works
- Wegener, Alfred (1911). Thermodynamik der Atmosphäre [Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere] (in German). Leipzig: Verlag Von Johann Ambrosius Barth.Wegener, Alfred (1912). "The Formation of the Major Forms of the Earth's Crust (Continents and Oceans), on a Geophysical Basis." Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen (in German). 63: 185–195, 253–256, 305–309.Wegener, Alfred (July 1912). "The Origin of the Continents." Geologische Rundschau (in German). §78§ (4): 276–292. Bibcode:1912GeoRu...3..276W. doi:10.1007/BF02202896. S2CID 129316588.Wegener, Alfred. Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane [The Origin of Continents and Oceans] (in German). Borntraeger. ISBN 3-443-01056-3. LCCN unk83068007.Wegener, Alfred. Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane [The Origin of Continents and Oceans] (in German) (4th ed.). Braunschweig: Friedrich Vieweg & Sohn Akt. Ges. ISBN 3-443-01056-3.Wegener, Alfred (1966). The Origin of Continents and Oceans. Translated by John Biram, from the fourth revised German edition. New York: Dover. ISBN 0-486-61708-4.Wegener, Elsie; Loewe, Fritz, eds. (1939). Greenland Journey, The Story of Wegener's German Expedition to Greenland in 1930–31 as told by Members of the Expedition and the Leader's Diary. Translated by Winifred M. Deans, from the seventh German edition. London: Blackie & Son Ltd.Hair ice: In 1918, Wegener proposed a theory regarding the formation of hair ice.
- Hair ice – Wegener introduced a theory on the growth of hair ice in 1918.
References
- Works by Alfred Wegener at Project Gutenberg
- Works by Alfred Wegener at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
- USGS biography of Wegener Archived 20 February 2006 at the Wayback Machine
- Alfred Wegener (1880–1930) – Biographical material
- Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane Archived 19 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine – full digital facsimile at Linda Hall Library
- Newspaper clippings about Alfred Wegener in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW