Jonas Salk

Jonas Edward Salk (; born Jonas Salk; October 28, 1914 – June 23, 1995) was an American virologist and medical researcher recognized for developing one of the initial successful polio vaccines. He was born in New York City and pursued his education at the City College of New York and the New York University School of Medicine.

Jonas Edward Salk (; born Jonas Salk; October 28, 1914 – June 23, 1995) was an American virologist and medical researcher who developed one of the first successful polio vaccines. He was born in New York City and attended the City College of New York and New York University School of Medicine.

In 1947, Salk commenced his tenure as a professor at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine. There, starting in 1948, he initiated a research endeavor to identify the various serotypes of poliovirus. Subsequently, for a period of seven years, Salk dedicated his efforts to the development of a polio vaccine.

Upon the public announcement of the vaccine's efficacy in April 1955, Salk received immediate acclaim as a "miracle worker." He deliberately chose not to patent the vaccine or pursue financial gain, aiming instead to facilitate its broadest possible global dissemination. Although the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis and the University of Pittsburgh explored patenting the vaccine, their patent attorney advised that due to the non-novel nature of Salk's techniques, any potential patentable novelty would be exceedingly limited in scope and of questionable utility. This development triggered a rapid global vaccination effort, with numerous nations, including Canada, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, West Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Belgium, initiating polio immunization campaigns utilizing Salk's vaccine. By 1959, the Salk vaccine had been deployed in approximately 90 countries. Subsequently, Albert Sabin developed an attenuated live oral polio vaccine, which became commercially available in 1961. Within 25 years of the Salk vaccine's introduction, polio transmission within the United States was eradicated.

In 1963, Salk established the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California, which currently functions as a prominent center for medical and scientific inquiry. Throughout his later life, he persisted in conducting research and authoring publications, with his final years primarily dedicated to the pursuit of an HIV vaccine. Salk was a staunch advocate for mandatory vaccination, characterizing the universal immunization of children against diseases as a "moral commitment." His personal archives are presently housed within the Geisel Library at the University of California, San Diego.

Early Life and Educational Background

Jonas Salk was born in New York City on October 28, 1914, to Daniel and Dora (née Press) Salk. Both parents were of Jewish heritage; Daniel was born in New Jersey to immigrant parents, while Dora, a native of Minsk, immigrated to the United States at the age of 12. Salk's parents had limited formal education. He had two younger brothers, Herman and Lee, the latter of whom became a child psychologist. The family relocated from East Harlem to 853 Elsmere Place in the Bronx, also residing for a period in Queens at 439 Beach 69th Street, Arverne.

At the age of 13, Salk enrolled in Townsend Harris Hall Prep School, a public institution designed for intellectually gifted students. This school, named after the founder of the City College of New York (CCNY), served as "a launching pad for the talented sons of immigrant parents who lacked the money—and pedigree—to attend a top private school," as noted by his biographer, David Oshinsky. During his high school years, Salk was characterized by a peer as "a perfectionist...who read everything he could lay his hands on." The curriculum required students to complete a four-year program in only three years, leading to a high attrition rate despite the school's motto, "study, study, study." Nevertheless, the majority of graduates achieved the academic standing necessary for admission to CCNY, which was then recognized as a highly competitive collegiate institution.

Academic Background

Salk matriculated at CCNY, obtaining a Bachelor of Science degree in chemistry in 1934. Oshinsky observes that "for working-class immigrant families, City College represented the apex of public higher education. Getting in was tough, but tuition was free. Competition was intense, but the rules were fairly applied. No one got an advantage based on an accident of birth."

Influenced by his mother, Salk abandoned his ambition to become a lawyer, redirecting his academic focus toward prerequisites for medical school. Despite this shift, the facilities at City College were, according to Oshinsky, "barely second rate," characterized by an absence of research laboratories, an inadequate library, and a faculty with limited renowned scholars. Oshinsky observed that the institution's distinction stemmed from its highly motivated student body, largely propelled by parental aspirations. This cohort, particularly from the 1930s and 1940s, yielded significant intellectual talent, including eight Nobel Prize winners and numerous PhD recipients—a greater number than any other public college apart from the University of California at Berkeley. Salk matriculated at CCNY at the age of 15, an age considered typical for freshmen who had advanced through multiple grades.

During his childhood, Salk exhibited no particular inclination toward medicine or science. In an interview with the Academy of Achievement, he stated, "As a child I was not interested in science. I was merely interested in things human, the human side of nature, if you like, and I continue to be interested in that."

Medical School

Following his graduation from City College of New York, Salk matriculated at the New York University School of Medicine. Oshinsky notes that NYU's modest reputation was primarily attributed to distinguished alumni, such as Walter Reed, renowned for his contributions to eradicating yellow fever. The institution offered "comparatively low" tuition and, notably, did not practice discrimination against Jewish applicants, a stark contrast to the rigid quotas enforced by many neighboring medical schools, including Cornell, Columbia, the University of Pennsylvania, and Yale. For instance, in 1935, Yale admitted 76 applicants from a pool of 501; despite 200 applicants being Jewish, only five were accepted. Throughout his tenure at New York University Medical School, Salk concurrently served as a laboratory technician during academic terms and as a camp counselor during summer breaks.

According to Bookchin, Salk distinguished himself among his medical school peers, not solely due to his sustained academic excellence—evidenced by his induction into Alpha Omega Alpha, the medical equivalent of the Phi Beta Kappa Society—but also by his deliberate choice against pursuing medical practice. Instead, he immersed himself in research, including a year-long sabbatical dedicated to biochemistry. Subsequently, his academic focus shifted predominantly to bacteriology, which superseded medicine as his principal area of interest. He articulated a desire to contribute to the welfare of humankind broadly, rather than treating individual patients. Specifically, his engagement in laboratory work provided a new trajectory for his career.

Salk articulated his career path, stating, "My intention was to go to medical school, and then become a medical scientist. I did not intend to practice medicine, although in medical school, and in my internship, I did all the things that were necessary to qualify me in that regard. I had opportunities along the way to drop the idea of medicine and go into science. At one point at the end of my first year of medical school, I received an opportunity to spend a year in research and teaching in biochemistry, which I did. And at the end of that year, I was told that I could, if I wished, switch and get a Ph.D. in biochemistry, but my preference was to stay with medicine. And, I believe that this is all linked to my original ambition, or desire, which was to be of some help to humankind, so to speak, in a larger sense than just on a one-to-one basis."

During his final year of medical school, Salk recounted an elective period spent in a laboratory dedicated to influenza research. He noted that the influenza virus had only recently been identified, presenting an opportunity to investigate whether viral infectivity could be neutralized while still eliciting an immune response. Through meticulously designed experiments, this hypothesis was confirmed.

Postgraduate research and early laboratory work

During his postgraduate virology studies in 1941, Salk undertook a two-month elective in Thomas Francis's laboratory at the University of Michigan. Francis had recently joined the medical school faculty, having previously discovered the type B influenza virus while at the Rockefeller Foundation. Bookchin states that this two-month period in Francis's laboratory marked Salk's initial exposure to virology, a field that captivated him. Following medical school graduation, Salk commenced his residency at the esteemed Mount Sinai Hospital in New York, where he once more collaborated in Francis's laboratory. Subsequently, Salk collaborated with Francis at the University of Michigan School of Public Health on an army-commissioned project in Michigan focused on influenza vaccine development. Together, Salk and Francis successfully refined a vaccine that quickly gained widespread adoption at army bases. During this work, Salk identified and isolated one of the influenza strains incorporated into the final vaccine.

Poliovirus Research

By 1947, Salk sought to establish his own laboratory and was allocated one at the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine. However, the facility proved smaller than anticipated, and he perceived the university's regulations as unduly restrictive.

In 1948, Harry Weaver, the research director for the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, initiated contact with Salk. Weaver requested Salk to investigate the existence of additional poliovirus types beyond the three then identified, offering supplementary laboratory space, equipment, and research personnel. During the initial year, Salk assembled necessary supplies and recruited researchers, including Julius Youngner, Byron Bennett, L. James Lewis, Elsie N. Ward, and secretary Lorraine Friedman, all of whom became part of his team. Subsequently, Salk secured grants from the Mellon family, enabling him to construct a functional virology laboratory. He subsequently became involved with the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis's polio project, which President Franklin D. Roosevelt had established.

Widespread publicity and public apprehension regarding polio significantly augmented funding, which reached $67 million by 1955. Notwithstanding this financial support, research into live vaccines persisted. Salk opted to employ a "killed" virus, which he considered safer, in contrast to the attenuated poliovirus strains concurrently utilized by Albert Sabin in the development of an oral vaccine.

Following successful trials on laboratory animals, Salk administered his killed-virus vaccine to 43 children on July 2, 1952. This effort was supported by staff from the D.T. Watson Home for Crippled Children, now known as the Education Center at the Watson Institute in Sewickley, Pennsylvania. Several weeks thereafter, Salk vaccinated children residing at the Polk State School for the Retarded and Feeble-minded. In 1953, he vaccinated his own children. The vaccine underwent testing on approximately one million children in 1954, a group subsequently referred to as the "polio pioneers." On April 12, 1955, the vaccine was officially declared safe.

The project expanded significantly, encompassing 100 million contributors to the March of Dimes and 7 million volunteers. The foundation incurred debt to fund the conclusive research necessary for the development of the Salk vaccine. Salk dedicated himself relentlessly to the work for two and a half years.

Salk's inactivated poliovirus vaccine was introduced for use in 1955. This vaccine is included on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.

Emergence as a Public Figure

Public Recognition Versus Personal Privacy

Salk preferred to shield his scientific career from excessive personal scrutiny, consistently striving for independence and privacy in his research and personal life; however, this proved unattainable. Following an intense surge of media attention, television personality Ed Murrow remarked to Salk, "Young man, a great tragedy has befallen you—you've lost your anonymity." When Murrow inquired about the patent ownership, Salk responded, "Well, the people I would say. There is no patent. Could you patent the sun?" Estimates suggest the vaccine would have been valued at $7 billion if it had been patented. Nevertheless, attorneys for the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis investigated patenting possibilities but ultimately concluded that the vaccine was not a patentable invention due to existing prior art.

Salk held a position on the board of directors for the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation.

Jon Cohen observed that Jonas Salk captivated both the scientific community and the media. As one of the few contemporary scientists globally recognized, Salk possessed a superstar persona in the public imagination. Instances included airline pilots announcing his presence, leading to passenger applause, and hotels consistently upgrading him to penthouse suites. Dining out frequently resulted in interruptions from admirers. While scientists and journalists who regularly interacted with Salk eventually perceived him more realistically, many initially approached him with profound awe, as if hoping to absorb some of his renown.

A few months following his vaccine announcement, The New York Times reported that Salk was largely "appalled at the demands on the public figure he has become and resentful of what he considers to be the invasion of his privacy." The Times article further noted that at age 40, the previously obscure scientist "was lifted from his laboratory almost to the level of a folk hero." He garnered a presidential citation, numerous awards, four honorary degrees, several foreign decorations, and thousands of letters from the public. His alma mater, City College of New York, conferred upon him an honorary Doctor of Laws degree. However, The New York Times indicated that "despite such very nice tributes," Salk was "profoundly disturbed by the torrent of fame that has descended upon him," consistently expressing a desire to retreat from public attention and return to his laboratory due to his "genuine distaste for publicity, which he believes is inappropriate for a scientist."

In a 1980 interview, conducted 25 years subsequent to these events, Salk reflected, "It's as if I've been a public property ever since, having to respond to external, as well as internal, impulses. ... It's brought me enormous gratification, opened many opportunities, but at the same time placed many burdens on me. It altered my career, my relationships with colleagues; I am a public figure, no longer one of them."

Maintaining Individuality

While Salk's scientific persona might appear austere, The New York Times characterized "Salk the man" as possessing "great warmth and tremendous enthusiasm," noting that individuals who encountered him generally found him likable. A Washington newspaper correspondent remarked on his persuasive ability, stating, "He could sell me the Brooklyn Bridge, and I never bought anything before." Geneticist Walter Nelson-Rees described him as "a renaissance scientist: brilliant, sophisticated, driven ... a fantastic creature."

Salk enjoyed engaging in conversation with individuals he favored, and the Times observed that "he likes a lot of people." His communication style was described as rapid, articulate, and frequently delivered "in complete paragraphs." Furthermore, he exhibited "very little perceptible interest in the things that interest most people—such as making money," which he categorized as "unnecessary," akin to "mink coats and Cadillacs."

Establishment of the Salk Institute

Following Salk's pivotal discovery, numerous benefactors, notably the National Foundation, supported his vision for a research complex dedicated to exploring biological phenomena "from cell to society." This institution, named the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, commenced operations in 1963 within the La Jolla neighborhood of San Diego, housed in a purpose-built facility designed by architect Louis Kahn. Salk envisioned the institute as a catalyst for emerging scientists, stating, "I thought how nice it would be if a place like this existed and I was invited to work there."

In 1966, Salk articulated his "ambitious plan for the creation of a kind of Socratic academy where the supposedly alienated two cultures of science and humanism will have a favorable atmosphere for cross-fertilization." Author and journalist Howard Taubman elaborated:

Despite his future-oriented perspective, Dr. Salk remained focused on the institute's immediate objective: the advancement and application of molecular and cellular biology, a nascent field characterized as a synthesis of physics, chemistry, and biology. The overarching aim of this scientific endeavor is to comprehend human life processes.

Discussions at the institute included the potential for developing a single vaccine to protect children against numerous common infectious diseases, contingent upon discovering the cellular mechanism for antibody production. Speculation also encompassed the capability to identify and potentially rectify genetic errors responsible for birth defects.

Dr. Salk, a creative individual, envisioned the institute contributing to the exploration of natural wisdom, thereby expanding human understanding. He believed the ultimate objective of science, humanism, and the arts was to empower individuals to fully develop their creative potential, irrespective of its direction. To facilitate such intellectual exchanges, the institute's architect, Louis Kahn, incorporated blackboards into the wall design along the walkways, replacing traditional concrete surfaces.

In 1980, commemorating the 25th anniversary of the Salk vaccine, The New York Times published an article detailing the operational activities at the facility, stating:

Within the institute, a distinguished complex of laboratories and study units situated on a Pacific-facing bluff, Dr. Salk served as both founding director and resident fellow. His personal research group focused on the immunological dimensions of cancer and the underlying mechanisms of autoimmune disorders, such as multiple sclerosis, where the immune system erroneously targets the body's own tissues.

During an interview concerning his aspirations for the institute, Salk articulated that his most significant legacy might ultimately be the establishment of the institute itself and its subsequent contributions, given its role as a model for excellence and a nurturing environment for innovative thinkers.

Francis Crick, renowned for co-discovering the DNA molecule's structure, held a prominent professorship at the institute until his passing in 2004. Furthermore, the institute provided the empirical foundation for Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar's 1979 publication, Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts.

AIDS Vaccine Research Initiatives

Commencing in the mid-1980s, Salk initiated research endeavors aimed at developing an AIDS vaccine. He co-established The Immune Response Corporation (IRC) alongside Kevin Kimberlin and secured a patent for Remune, an immunological therapy; however, obtaining liability insurance for the product proved unsuccessful. The project was ultimately discontinued in 2007, twelve years following Salk's death.

Activism

In 1995, Jonas Salk was among the initial signatories of the Ashley Montagu Resolution, a document that petitioned the World Court (presently known as the International Court of Justice) to intervene in ending the genital modification of children, encompassing female genital mutilation, circumcision, and penile subincision.

Salk's Biophilosophy

In 1966, The New York Times bestowed upon Salk the appellation "Father of Biophilosophy." According to Times journalist and author Howard Taubman, Salk consistently acknowledged the extensive unknown territories awaiting human exploration. As a biologist, Salk perceived his field as being at the forefront of monumental new discoveries; concurrently, as a philosopher, he was convinced that humanists and artists, in collaboration with scientists, could achieve a comprehensive understanding of humanity across its physical, mental, and spiritual dimensions. He posited that such interdisciplinary dialogues could potentially foster a significant new intellectual movement, which he termed biophilosophers. During a 1984 meeting of the Congressional Clearinghouse on the Future at Capitol Hill, Salk conveyed to his cousin, Joel Kassiday, his optimism regarding the eventual development of methods to prevent most human and animal diseases. Salk also asserted the necessity for individuals to embrace judicious risks, contending that a society devoid of risk would stagnate without advancement.

Salk characterized his biophilosophy as the systematic application of a "biological, evolutionary perspective to philosophical, cultural, social, and psychological issues." He elaborated on this concept in greater depth within two of his publications, Man Unfolding and The Survival of the Wisest. In a 1980 interview, he articulated his views on the subject, notably expressing his belief that a substantial increase followed by an anticipated stabilization of the human population would occur, ultimately leading to a transformation in human perspectives.

Biological knowledge offers valuable analogies for comprehending human nature. While biology is often associated with practical applications like pharmaceuticals, its future significance in advancing understanding of living systems and human identity will be equally profound. He posited that historical human concerns revolved around mortality and disease, fostering "antideath" and "antidisease" attitudes. Conversely, he predicted a future where societal perspectives would shift towards "prolife" and "prohealth" stances, with birth control superseding death control in importance. Salk viewed these transformations as inherent to the natural order, stemming from humanity's adaptive capabilities, emphasizing the critical need for cooperation and collaboration, asserting that humans are "co-authors with nature of our destiny."

Salk defined a biophilosopher as an individual who interprets the "scriptures of nature," acknowledging humanity's evolutionary origins and recognizing that through the development of consciousness, awareness, and the ability to envision and select future alternatives, humanity has become an integral part of the evolutionary process itself.

Before his passing, Salk was engaged in writing a new book exploring biophilosophy, which was reportedly titled Millennium of the Mind.

Personal Life and Demise

In 1939, the day following his medical school graduation, Salk wed Donna Lindsay, then a master's candidate at the New York College of Social Work. According to David Oshinsky, Donna's father, Elmer Lindsay, a prosperous Manhattan dentist, perceived Salk as socially inferior to his daughter's previous suitors. Ultimately, Lindsay consented to the marriage under two stipulations: Salk had to delay the wedding until he could be formally designated as an M.D. on the invitations, and he was required to elevate his "rather pedestrian status" by adopting a middle name.

The couple had three sons: Peter, who pursued a career as a physician and served as a part-time professor of infectious diseases at the University of Pittsburgh; Darrell, who specialized in vaccines and genetics before retiring from the pediatrics faculty at the University of Washington School of Medicine; and Jonathan Salk, an adult and child psychiatrist and Assistant Clinical Professor at the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA. Following their divorce in 1968, Salk married French painter Françoise Gilot, formerly associated with Pablo Picasso, two years later.

Salk passed away from heart failure at the age of 80 in La Jolla on June 23, 1995. His interment took place at El Camino Memorial Park in San Diego.

Honors and Recognition

• In 1955, one month subsequent to the vaccine's announcement, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania bestowed upon Salk its "highest award for services," the Meritorious Service Medal, presented by Governor George M. Leader, who further remarked:

... in recognition of his 'historical medical' discovery ... Dr. Salk's achievement represents meritorious service of the highest magnitude and dimension for the commonwealth, the country, and mankind." Governor Leader, a father of three, expressed his "humble thankfulness to Dr. Salk" as a parent and his "pride to pay him tribute" as Governor.

• In 1955, the City University of New York established the Salk Scholarship fund, which annually grants awards to numerous distinguished pre-medical students.
• In 1956, he received the Lasker Award.
• In 1957, the Municipal Hospital building at the University of Pittsburgh, where Salk conducted his pioneering polio research, was renamed Jonas Salk Hall and now houses the university's School of Pharmacy and Dentistry.
• In 1958, he was honored with the James D. Bruce Memorial Award.
• In 1958, Salk was inducted into the Polio Hall of Fame, established in Warm Springs, Georgia.
• In 1961, Salk Oval, located on the Gold Coast in Queensland, Australia, was named in his honor.
• In 1975, he received both the Jawaharlal Nehru Award and the Congressional Gold Medal.
• In 1976, he was presented with the Academy of Achievement's Golden Plate Award.
• In 1976, the American Humanist Association designated him Humanist of the Year.
• In 1977, President Jimmy Carter conferred upon him the Presidential Medal of Freedom, accompanied by the subsequent declaration:

Due to the contributions of Doctor Jonas E. Salk, the nation was liberated from the devastating annual poliomyelitis epidemics. His diligent efforts ensured that countless individuals, who might otherwise have suffered debilitating conditions, now enjoy physical well-being. These achievements represent Doctor Salk's most significant accolades, which cannot be augmented; the Medal of Freedom serves solely as an expression of profound gratitude.

• In 1981, on January 3, the Italian government conferred upon him the distinction of Grand Officer of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic.
• In 1996, the March of Dimes Foundation established an annual $250,000 prize for distinguished biologists, instituted as a tribute to Salk.
• In 2006, the United States Postal Service commemorated Salk by issuing a 63-cent postage stamp as part of its Distinguished Americans series.
• In 2007, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver inducted Salk into the California Hall of Fame.
• In 2009, a BBYO boys chapter, named "Jonas Salk AZA #2357," was chartered in his honor in Scottsdale, Arizona.
• Several educational institutions bear his name, including schools in Mesa, Arizona; The Jonas E Salk Middle School within Spokane Schools District No. 81 in Spokane, Washington; and schools located in Tulsa, Oklahoma; Bolingbrook, Illinois; Levittown, New York; Old Bridge, New Jersey; Merrillville, Indiana; Sacramento, California; and Mira Mesa, California.
• On October 24, 2012, his birthday was designated "World Polio Day," an initiative originally established by Rotary International more than a decade prior.
• In 2014, to commemorate the centenary of Salk's birth, Google featured a Doodle honoring the physician and medical researcher. This visual tribute depicted joyful and healthy children and adults engaged in daily activities, with two children holding a sign that read, "Thank you, Dr. Salk!"

Documentary films

• In early 2009, the American Public Broadcasting Service broadcast its new documentary film, American Experience: The Polio Crusade.
• On April 12, 2010, a new 66-minute documentary, The Shot Felt 'Round the World, premiered globally, coinciding with the 55th anniversary of the Salk vaccine. Directed by Tjardus Greidanus and produced by Laura Davis, the film was conceptualized by Hollywood screenwriter and producer Carl Kurlander with the aim of offering "a fresh perspective on the era."
• In 2014, actor and director Robert Redford, who experienced a mild case of polio during childhood, directed a documentary focusing on the Salk Institute in La Jolla.
• In Chapter 10 of the 2018 season of Genius, Michael McElhatton made a brief cameo appearance as Salk, depicted on a date with Françoise Gilot.

Selected publications

• Man Unfolding (1972)
• Survival of the Wisest (1973)
• World Population and Human Values: A New Reality (1981)
• Anatomy of Reality: Merging of Intuition and Reason (1983)

• March of Dimes

References

Bourgeois, Suzanne. Genesis of the Salk Institute: The Epic of Its Founders. University of California Press, 2013.

• Bourgeois, Suzanne. Genesis of the Salk Institute: The Epic of Its Founders (University of California Press, 2013)
• Jacobs, Charlotte DeCroes. Jonas Salk: A Life. Oxford University Press, 2015. (Scholarly biography).
• Kluger, Jeffrey. Splendid Solution: Jonas Salk and the Conquest of Polio. Berkley Books, 2006. (A historical account of the polio vaccine).
• Oshinsky, David M. Polio: An American Story. Oxford University Press, 2005. (Excerpt available).
• Sahu, Hemlata, et al. "Jonas Salk (1914-1995): Pioneering the Fight Against Polio and Beyond." Cureus 16.9 (2024): e69681.
• Weintraub, B. "Jonas Salk (1914–1995) and the first vaccine against polio." Israel Chemist and Engineer, July 2020, issue 6, pp. 31–34.

• The American Experience: The Polio Crusade video, 1 hr. by PBS
• "Polio Vaccine" intro., Britannica, video, 1 minute
• Jonas Salk Trust
• Documents regarding Jonas Salk and the Salk Polio Vaccine, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
• Pittsburgh Post-Gazette feature on Jonas Salk and the Polio cure 50 years later Archived September 5, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
• US 5256767: Vaccine against HIV
• The Internet Archive hosts the short film Man Evolving (1985).
• The Register of Jonas Salk Papers, covering the period 1926–1991 and designated as MSS 1, is maintained within the Special Collections and Archives of the UC San Diego Library.