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Max Planck

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Max Planck

Max Planck

Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck ( ; German: [ˈmaks ˈplaŋk] ; 23 April 1858 – 4 October 1947) was a German theoretical physicist. He won the 1918 Nobel Prize in…

Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck (; German: [ˈmaks ˈplaŋk] ; April 23, 1858 – October 4, 1947) was a German theoretical physicist who received the 1918 Nobel Prize in Physics. The award recognized his significant contributions to the advancement of physics through his groundbreaking discovery of energy quanta.

Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck (; German: [ˈmaksˈplaŋk] ; 23 April 1858 – 4 October 1947) was a German theoretical physicist. He won the 1918 Nobel Prize in Physics "for the services he rendered to the advancement of physics by his discovery of energy quanta".

While Planck contributed extensively to theoretical physics, his renown primarily stems from his pivotal role as the originator of quantum theory and a foundational figure in modern physics, which fundamentally transformed the understanding of atomic and subatomic processes. He is also recognized for the Planck constant, h {\displaystyle h} , a concept of fundamental importance in quantum physics. This constant was instrumental in his derivation of a system of units, now known as Planck units, defined exclusively by physical constants. Furthermore, the Planck relation, E= h {\displaystyle h} ν, establishes that a photon's energy is directly proportional to its frequency.

Planck served two terms as President of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society. In 1948, this organization was renamed the Max Planck Society, and it currently encompasses 83 institutions dedicated to a broad spectrum of scientific disciplines.

Early Life and Education

Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck was born on April 23, 1858, in Kiel, which was then part of the Duchy of Holstein. He was the son of Johann Julius Wilhelm Planck and his second wife, Emma Patzig. At his baptism, he received the name Karl Ernst Ludwig Marx Planck, with Marx designated as his "appellation name." Nevertheless, by the age of ten, he began signing his name as Max, a practice he maintained throughout his life.

Planck originated from a distinguished, intellectual family lineage. Both his paternal great-grandfather and grandfather held positions as theology professors in Göttingen. His father served as a law professor at the Universities of Kiel and Munich, and one of his uncles was a judge.

Planck was the sixth child in his family, with two of his siblings being from his father's previous marriage. Warfare was prevalent during Planck's early childhood, and one of his earliest recollections involved the entry of Prussian and Austrian troops into Kiel during the Second Schleswig War in 1864.

In 1867, Planck's family relocated to Munich, where he subsequently enrolled at Maximiliansgymnasium. His mathematical aptitude became evident early on, and he later received instruction from Hermann Müller, a mathematician who recognized Planck's potential. Müller educated him in astronomy, mechanics, and advanced mathematics, and it was through Müller that Planck first encountered the law of conservation of energy, marking his initial engagement with the field of physics. Planck completed his schooling at the age of 17, graduating earlier than typical.

Planck possessed considerable musical talent; he pursued singing lessons, played the piano, organ, and cello, and composed both songs and operas. According to Britannica, "He possessed the gift of absolute pitch and was an excellent pianist who daily found serenity and delight at the keyboard, enjoying especially the works of Schubert and Brahms."

In 1874, Planck matriculated at the University of Munich. Under the guidance of Professor Philipp von Jolly, Planck conducted the sole experimental work of his scientific career, investigating the diffusion of hydrogen through heated platinum, before transitioning to theoretical physics. Jolly cautioned Planck against pursuing theoretical physics, with Planck recalling that in 1878, Jolly contended that physics was nearing completion, describing it as a "highly developed, nearly fully matured science, that through the crowning achievement of the discovery of the principle of conservation of energy will arguably soon take its final stable form."

In 1877, Planck undertook a year of study at the University of Berlin, where he engaged with physicists Hermann von Helmholtz and Gustav Kirchhoff, and mathematician Karl Weierstrass. Planck noted that Helmholtz often appeared unprepared, spoke at a slow pace, frequently made errors in calculations, and generally disengaged his audience. In contrast, Kirchhoff delivered meticulously prepared lectures that were perceived as dry and monotonous. Despite these observations, Planck soon developed a close friendship with Helmholtz. During his time in Berlin, he largely pursued self-study of Rudolf Clausius's works, a pursuit that ultimately guided his decision to specialize in thermodynamics.

In October 1878, Planck successfully completed his qualifying examinations, and in February 1879, he presented and defended his doctoral thesis, Über den zweiten Hauptsatz der mechanischen Wärmetheorie (On the second law of mechanical heat theory). Subsequently, he held a brief teaching position in mathematics and physics at his former school in Munich.

By 1880, Planck had achieved the two most prestigious academic qualifications available in Europe. The first was a doctoral degree, awarded upon the submission of his dissertation detailing his research and thermodynamic theory. Subsequently, he submitted his venia legendi, or habilitation thesis, titled Gleichgewichtszustände isotroper Körper in verschiedenen Temperaturen (Equilibrium states of isotropic bodies at different temperatures).

Career and Research

In 1880, Planck was appointed a Privatdozent (an unsalaried lecturer) in Munich, while awaiting a formal academic appointment. Although he initially received limited recognition from the academic community, he independently advanced his research in heat theory, successively deriving thermodynamic formalisms identical to those developed by Gibbs, albeit without prior knowledge of Gibbs's work. Clausius's foundational concepts of entropy were central to his investigations.

In April 1885, Planck was named an associate professor of Theoretical Physics at the University of Kiel. His subsequent research focused on entropy and its applications, particularly within physical chemistry. In 1897, he published his seminal work, Treatise on Thermodynamics. Additionally, he advanced a thermodynamic foundation for Svante Arrhenius's theory of electrolytic dissociation.

In 1889, Planck was appointed to succeed Kirchhoff's professorship at the University of Berlin—a move likely facilitated by Helmholtz's intervention—and by 1892, he attained the rank of Full Professor. He declined an offer in 1907 to assume Ludwig Boltzmann's former position in Vienna, opting instead to remain in Berlin. In 1909, while serving as a professor at the University of Berlin, he received an invitation to deliver the Ernest Kempton Adams Lectures in Theoretical Physics at Columbia University in New York City. These lectures were subsequently translated and co-published by Columbia University professor A. P. Wills. His retirement from Berlin occurred on January 10, 1926, with Erwin Schrödinger appointed as his successor.

Professor at Berlin University

As a professor at the University of Berlin, Planck became a member of the local Physical Society. Reflecting on this period, he later remarked, "At that time, I was essentially the sole theoretical physicist there, which made things rather challenging for me, as my discussions of entropy were not particularly in vogue, being considered a mere mathematical phantom." Through his leadership, the disparate local Physical Societies across Germany consolidated in 1898 to establish the German Physical Society (Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft, DPG), an organization he subsequently presided over from 1905 to 1909.

Planck initiated a six-semester lecture series on theoretical physics, characterized by Lise Meitner as "dry, somewhat impersonal," while an English attendee, James R. Partington, lauded him as "using no notes, never making mistakes, never faltering; the best lecturer I ever heard," further noting the crowded conditions: "There were always many standing around the room. As the lecture-room was well heated and rather close, some of the listeners would from time to time drop to the floor, but this did not disturb the lecture." Despite his influence, Planck did not cultivate a distinct academic "school"; his graduate students numbered approximately 20, including:

Entropy

Thermodynamics, referred to as the "mechanical theory of heat" in the late 19th century, originated earlier in that century from efforts to comprehend and enhance the operational efficiency of steam engines. During the 1840s, multiple researchers independently identified and articulated the principle of energy conservation, subsequently recognized as the first law of thermodynamics. Rudolf Clausius, in 1850, formally presented the second law of thermodynamics, positing that the spontaneous transfer of energy occurs exclusively from a warmer to a colder body, never in reverse. Concurrently in England, William Thomson independently arrived at an identical conclusion.

Clausius progressively refined his formulation, culminating in a novel articulation in 1865. For this purpose, he introduced the concept of entropy, which he defined as the measure of reversibly supplied heat relative to absolute temperature.

This novel formulation of the second law, which remains pertinent, stated: "Entropy can be created, but never destroyed." Clausius, whose contributions Planck studied as a young student in Berlin, effectively applied this emergent natural law to mechanical, thermoelectric, and chemical phenomena.

In his 1879 thesis, Planck synthesized Clausius's works, identifying and subsequently resolving inconsistencies and imprecisions within their formulations. Furthermore, he extended the applicability of the second law to encompass all natural processes, whereas Clausius had restricted its scope to reversible and thermal processes. Planck also thoroughly investigated the nascent concept of entropy, underscoring its dual nature as both a property of a physical system and an indicator of process irreversibility: A process generating entropy is inherently irreversible, given that the second law dictates entropy cannot be annihilated. Conversely, in reversible processes, entropy maintains a constant value. He elaborated on this principle in 1887 through a series of treatises titled "On the Principle of the Increase of Entropy".

During his examination of entropy, Planck diverged from the then-dominant molecular, probabilistic interpretation, arguing that it lacked absolute proof of universality. Instead, he adopted a phenomenological methodology and maintained skepticism towards atomism. Although he later relinquished this stance while developing the law of radiation, his initial contributions powerfully demonstrate thermodynamics' capacity to resolve specific physicochemical challenges.

Planck's comprehension of entropy encompassed the insight that the maximum entropy state signifies thermodynamic equilibrium. The corollary, that understanding entropy enables the derivation of all laws governing thermodynamic equilibrium states, aligns with contemporary scientific perspectives. Consequently, Planck prioritized equilibrium processes in his research, investigating, for instance, the coexistence of phases and the equilibrium of gas reactions, building upon his habilitation thesis. This pioneering work in chemical thermodynamics garnered significant attention, propelled by the era's rapid advancements in chemical research.

Concurrently and independently of Planck, Josiah Willard Gibbs had also elucidated nearly all the principles Planck discovered regarding physicochemical equilibria, publishing his findings from 1876 onward. Planck remained unaware of these treatises, which were not translated into German until 1892. Nevertheless, the two scientists adopted distinct methodologies: Planck focused on irreversible processes, whereas Gibbs concentrated on equilibria. Gibbs's approach ultimately gained wider acceptance due to its inherent simplicity, though Planck's methodology is recognized for its broader universality.

Electrolytes and Solutions

Beyond his investigations into entropy, Planck devoted the initial decade of his scientific career to examining electrical phenomena within solutions. During this era, he successfully provided a theoretical derivation for the correlation between solution conductivity and dilution, thus laying the groundwork for contemporary electrolyte theory. Furthermore, he theoretically elucidated the conditions dictating alterations in the freezing and boiling points of dilute solutions, phenomena empirically identified by François-Marie Raoult and Jacobus Henricus van ’t Hoff in 1886.

Black-body Radiation

In 1894, Max Planck initiated his research into the phenomenon of black-body radiation. This challenge, articulated by Kirchhoff in 1859, sought to determine the relationship between the intensity of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a black body (a perfect absorber or cavity radiator) and both the radiation's frequency (its color) and the body's temperature. While experimental investigations had been conducted, no existing theoretical framework accurately reconciled with the empirical observations. Wilhelm Wien's law offered accurate predictions for high frequencies but proved inadequate for low frequencies. Conversely, the Rayleigh–Jeans law, an alternative theoretical model, aligned with experimental data at low frequencies but led to the "ultraviolet catastrophe" at high frequencies, a discrepancy predicted by classical physics. It is noteworthy, however, that this particular issue did not serve as Planck's primary motivation, a point often misrepresented in academic texts.

In 1899, Planck's initial proposed solution, termed the "principle of elementary disorder," enabled him to deduce Wien's law based on several assumptions concerning the entropy of an ideal oscillator, resulting in what became known as the Wien–Planck law. Nevertheless, subsequent experimental data failed to corroborate this new law, much to Planck's dismay. Consequently, he refined his methodology, leading to the formulation of the inaugural version of the renowned Planck black-body radiation law, which accurately characterized the empirically observed black-body spectrum. This law was initially presented at a DPG meeting on October 19, 1900, and subsequently published in 1901. Notably, this preliminary derivation neither incorporated energy quantization nor employed statistical mechanics, a field Planck initially regarded with skepticism. By November 1900, Planck had revised this initial formulation, adopting Boltzmann's statistical interpretation of the second law of thermodynamics to achieve a more profound comprehension of the underlying principles governing his radiation law. Despite his profound reservations regarding the philosophical and physical ramifications of Boltzmann's methodology, Planck's adoption of it was, as he later articulated, "an act of despair... I was ready to sacrifice any of my previous convictions about physics."

The pivotal assumption underpinning his revised derivation, unveiled to the DPG on December 14, 1900, was the proposition, now recognized as the Planck postulate, that electromagnetic energy is emitted exclusively in discrete, quantized units, meaning energy can only exist as an integer multiple of an elementary quantum:

E = h ν {\displaystyle E=h\nu }

In this equation, h denotes the Planck constant, also referred to as Planck's action quantum (initially introduced in 1899), and ν represents the radiation's frequency. It is crucial to note that the elementary energy units under consideration are defined by hν, rather than merely by ν. Contemporary physicists refer to these quanta as photons, with each photon of a given frequency ν possessing a distinct and characteristic energy. Consequently, the total energy at that specific frequency is calculated by multiplying hν by the corresponding number of photons. Planck elucidated this concept by stating: "Radiant heat is not a continuous flow and indefinitely divisible. ... It must be defined as a discontinuous mass, made up of units all of which are similar to one another." He famously characterized these quanta as "the pennies of the atomic world."

Initially, Planck regarded quantization as merely "a purely formal assumption ... actually I did not think much about it ..."; however, this concept, fundamentally incompatible with classical physics, is now recognized as the genesis of quantum physics and the paramount intellectual achievement of Planck's career. (Boltzmann had previously explored the possibility of discrete energy states in a physical system in a theoretical paper in 1877.) The discovery of the Planck constant enabled him to establish a novel universal system of physical units, such as the Planck length and Planck mass, all derived from fundamental physical constants, which form the bedrock of much of quantum theory. In December 1918, during a conversation with his son, Planck characterized his discovery as 'a discovery of the first rank, comparable perhaps only to the discoveries of Newton'. For his foundational contribution to this new domain of physics, Planck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1918, which he received in 1919.

Subsequently, Planck made unsuccessful attempts to comprehend the intrinsic meaning of energy quanta. He stated, "My unavailing attempts to somehow reintegrate the action quantum into classical theory extended over several years and caused me much trouble." Even years later, physicists like Rayleigh, Jeans, and Lorentz continued to set the Planck constant to zero to align with classical physics, despite Planck's clear understanding that this constant possessed a precise, non-zero value. He expressed his frustration, remarking, "I am unable to understand Jeans' stubbornness – he is an example of a theoretician as should never be existing, the same as Hegel was for philosophy. So much the worse for the facts if they don't fit."

Max Born observed of Planck: "He was, by nature, a conservative mind; he had nothing of the revolutionary and was thoroughly skeptical about speculations. Yet his belief in the compelling force of logical reasoning from facts was so strong that he did not flinch from announcing the most revolutionary idea which ever has shaken physics."

Einstein and the Theory of Relativity

In 1905, Albert Einstein published three seminal papers in the journal Annalen der Physik. Planck was among the select few who immediately grasped the profound implications of the special theory of relativity. His influence was instrumental in the rapid and widespread acceptance of this theory throughout Germany. Planck also made significant contributions to the extension of the special theory of relativity, notably by reformulating it in terms of classical action.

Planck initially rejected Einstein's hypothesis of light quanta (photons), which was predicated on Heinrich Hertz's 1887 discovery and Philipp Lenard's subsequent investigations into the photoelectric effect. He was reluctant to entirely abandon Maxwell's established theory of electrodynamics, asserting, "The theory of light would be thrown back not by decades, but by centuries, into the age when Christiaan Huygens dared to fight against the mighty emission theory of Isaac Newton ..."

In 1910, Einstein highlighted the anomalous behavior of specific heat at low temperatures as another phenomenon inexplicable by classical physics. In response to the growing number of contradictions, Planck and Walther Nernst organized the First Solvay Conference in Brussels in 1911. During this pivotal meeting, Einstein successfully persuaded Planck.

Concurrently, Planck had been appointed dean of Berlin University, a position that enabled him to invite Einstein to Berlin and establish a new professorship for him in 1914. The two scientists soon developed a close friendship, frequently meeting to play music together.

First World War

At the commencement of the First World War, Planck shared the prevailing public enthusiasm, writing that, "Besides much that is horrible, there is also much that is unexpectedly great and beautiful: the smooth solution of the most difficult domestic political problems by the unification of all parties (and) ... the extolling of everything good and noble." Planck was also a signatory of the notorious "Manifesto of the 93 intellectuals," a document of polemic war propaganda, in contrast to Einstein, who maintained a strictly pacifistic stance that nearly resulted in his imprisonment, averted only by his Swiss citizenship.

In 1915, while Italy remained a neutral power, Planck successfully advocated for a scientific paper from Italy, which subsequently received an award from the Prussian Academy of Sciences, where Planck served as one of four permanent presidents.

Post-war and the Weimar Republic

During the tumultuous post-World War I era, Planck, who had become the preeminent figure in German physics, urged his colleagues to "persevere and continue working."

In October 1920, Planck collaborated with Fritz Haber to found the Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft, an organization dedicated to securing financial backing for scientific research. A significant portion of the funds distributed by this entity originated from international sources.

Planck occupied prominent roles at institutions such as Berlin University, the Prussian Academy of Sciences, the German Physical Society, and the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (later renamed the Max Planck Society in 1948). However, the prevailing economic instability in Germany during this period severely constrained his ability to conduct personal research.

In the interwar years, Planck joined the German People's Party, the political affiliation of Nobel Peace Prize recipient Gustav Stresemann, which advocated for liberal domestic policies and a more revisionist approach to international affairs.

Planck opposed the implementation of universal suffrage and subsequently attributed the rise of the Nazi dictatorship to "the ascent of the rule of the crowds."

Quantum Mechanics

By the late 1920s, Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, and Wolfgang Pauli had developed the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, a framework that Planck, along with Schrödinger, Laue, and Einstein, initially rejected. Planck anticipated that wave mechanics would soon supersede quantum theory—a field he had pioneered. However, this expectation proved incorrect, as subsequent research consistently affirmed the fundamental and lasting significance of quantum theory, despite the philosophical reservations held by both Planck and Einstein. In this context, Planck encountered the validity of an earlier observation he had made during his youthful struggles against established scientific paradigms: "A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it." Despite its frequent citation, this aphorism had several counter-examples even during Planck's lifetime. For instance, Charles Darwin's concepts from On the Origin of Species gained general acceptance among 75% of British scientists within a mere decade. Conversely, science historian I. Bernard Cohen observed that Planck's own theories were broadly embraced by his contemporaries. Similarly, the theory of plate tectonics was adopted by geologists within a decade, as evidenced by its inclusion in textbooks. Research conducted by K. Brad Wray on the evolution of scientific ideas indicates that older scientists exhibit only a marginal reluctance to accept novel conceptualizations.

The Nazi Dictatorship and World War II

Upon the Nazi regime's ascent to power in 1933, Planck, then 74 years old, observed the dismissal and humiliation of numerous Jewish friends and colleagues, alongside the emigration of hundreds of scientists from Nazi Germany. He reiterated his call to "persevere and continue working," urging scientists contemplating emigration to remain in Germany. Despite this stance, he facilitated the emigration of his nephew, economist Hermann Kranold, to London following Kranold's arrest. Planck harbored hopes that the political crisis would soon subside and conditions would improve.

Otto Hahn requested that Planck assemble prominent German professors to issue a public statement condemning the persecution of Jewish academics. Planck, however, responded, "If you are able to gather today 30 such gentlemen, then tomorrow 150 others will come and speak against it, because they are eager to take over the positions of the others." Under Planck's direction, the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (KWG) largely refrained from direct confrontation with the Nazi regime, with the notable exception of its advocacy for the Jewish scientist Fritz Haber. In May 1933, Planck sought and obtained an audience with the newly appointed German Chancellor, Adolf Hitler, to address the matter. Planck argued that the "forced emigration of Jews would kill German science and Jews could be good Germans." Hitler's response was, "but we don't have anything against the Jews, only against communists." This exchange rendered Planck's efforts futile, as Hitler's assertion that "the Jews are all Communists, and these are my enemies" eliminated any foundation for further negotiation. The following year, 1934, Haber passed away while in exile.

The following year, Planck, who had presided over the KWG since 1930, orchestrated a formal commemorative event for Haber, adopting a somewhat defiant approach. Furthermore, he discreetly facilitated the continued employment of several Jewish scientists within KWG institutions for a period of years. By 1936, his tenure as KWG president concluded, and the Nazi regime exerted pressure to prevent him from seeking re-election.

Amidst the escalating political hostility in Germany, Johannes Stark, a leading proponent of Deutsche Physik (also known as "German Physics" or "Aryan Physics"), publicly assailed Planck, Arnold Sommerfeld, and Heisenberg. He criticized their continued instruction of Einstein's theories, pejoratively labeling them "white Jews." The "Hauptamt Wissenschaft," the Nazi governmental agency for scientific affairs, initiated an inquiry into Planck's lineage, alleging he was "1/16 Jewish," an assertion Planck refuted.

Planck reached his 80th birthday in 1938. The DPG commemorated this milestone with a ceremony where the Max-Planck medal, established in 1928 as the DPG's most distinguished award, was bestowed upon the French physicist Louis de Broglie. By late 1938, the Prussian Academy's residual autonomy was eradicated as it was absorbed by the Nazi regime, consistent with their policy of Gleichschaltung. Planck registered his dissent by relinquishing his presidential role. He maintained an active travel schedule, delivering numerous public lectures, including his discourse on Religion and Science. Remarkably, five years subsequent to this, he retained the physical capacity to ascend 3,000-meter peaks in the Alps.

Throughout the Second World War, the escalating frequency of Allied bombing raids on Berlin compelled Planck and his wife to relocate temporarily from the city to a rural area. In 1942, he articulated: "An ardent desire has developed within me to endure this crisis and survive sufficiently long to witness the pivotal moment, the commencement of a new ascent." By February 1944, his Berlin residence was utterly demolished by an aerial bombardment, resulting in the complete destruction of his scientific archives and correspondence. Subsequently, his rural sanctuary became imperiled by the swift progression of Allied forces from both fronts.

In 1944, Planck's son, Erwin, was apprehended by the Gestapo subsequent to the attempted assassination of Hitler during the 20 July plot. He faced trial and was condemned to death by the People's Court in October 1944. Erwin was executed by hanging at Berlin's Plötzensee Prison in January 1945. The demise of his son profoundly diminished Planck's will to live.

Personal Life and Demise

In March 1887, Planck wed Marie Merck (1861–1909), the sister of a former schoolmate, and they subsequently relocated to a sublet apartment in Kiel. Their union produced four children: Karl (1888–1916), the twins Emma (1889–1919) and Grete (1889–1917), and Erwin (1893–1945).

Following their residence in a Berlin apartment, the Planck family established their home in a villa located at Wangenheimstrasse 21 in Berlin-Grunewald. Proximity to their residence were several other University of Berlin professors, notably the theologian Adolf von Harnack, who developed a close friendship with Planck. The Planck household rapidly evolved into a prominent social and cultural hub. Distinguished scientists, including Albert Einstein, Otto Hahn, and Lise Meitner, were regular guests. The practice of collaborative musical performance had previously been a tradition within the Helmholtz household.

Following several years of marital contentment, Marie Planck passed away in July 1909, with tuberculosis identified as a potential cause.

In March 1911, Planck entered into a second marriage with Marga von Hoesslin (1882–1948); their fifth child, Hermann, was born that December.

During the First World War, Planck's second son, Erwin, became a French prisoner of war in 1914, concurrently with his eldest son, Karl, who was killed in action at Verdun. Grete succumbed in 1917 during the childbirth of her first child. Her sister experienced a similar demise two years subsequent, having married Grete's widower. Both granddaughters survived and were subsequently named in honor of their mothers. Planck confronted these profound losses with stoicism.

In January 1945, Erwin Planck, with whom his father shared a particularly close bond, received a death sentence from the People's Court due to his involvement in the unsuccessful July 1944 assassination attempt on Hitler. Erwin's execution occurred on January 23, 1945.

Subsequent to the conclusion of World War II, Planck, his second wife, and their son were relocated to a relative's residence in Göttingen, where Planck passed away on October 4, 1947. His interment took place in the Stadtfriedhof in Göttingen.

Contrary to Bohr's perspective, Planck asserted that the external world existed independently of human observation, constituting an absolute reality. He regarded the endeavor to discover the laws governing this absolute as the most profound scientific pursuit.

Albert Einstein, in his introduction to Planck's publication titled Where Is Science Going?, described him as "One of those few worshipers in the Temple of Science who would still remain should an angel of God descend and drive out of the temple all those lesser scientists, who under different circumstances might become politicians or captains of industry."

Religious Perspectives

Planck held membership in the Lutheran Church in Germany and demonstrated significant tolerance for diverse religious and philosophical perspectives. In a 1937 lecture, "Religion und Naturwissenschaft" ("Religion and Natural Science"), he articulated that religious symbols and rituals were integral to a believer's capacity for divine worship, while simultaneously emphasizing that these symbols offered an imperfect representation of divinity. He critiqued atheism for its preoccupation with deriding such symbols, yet also cautioned believers against overestimating their significance.

In 1944, Planck articulated: "As a man who has devoted his whole life to the most clear headed science, to the study of matter, I can tell you as a result of my research about atoms this much: There is no matter as such. All matter originates and exists only by virtue of a force which brings the particle of an atom to vibration and holds this most minute solar system of the atom together. We must assume behind this force the existence of a conscious and intelligent spirit [orig. Geist]. This spirit is the matrix of all matter."

Planck asserted that the concept of God held importance for both religious and scientific frameworks, albeit through divergent interpretations: "Both religion and science require a belief in God. For believers, God is in the beginning, and for physicists He is at the end of all considerations … To the former He is the foundation, to the latter, the crown of the edifice of every generalized world view".

Additionally, Planck stated:

..."to believe" means "to recognize as a truth", and the knowledge of nature, continually advancing on incontestably safe tracks, has made it utterly impossible for a person possessing some training in natural science to recognize as founded on truth the many reports of extraordinary occurrences contradicting the laws of nature, of miracles which are still commonly regarded as essential supports and confirmations of religious doctrines, and which formerly used to be accepted as facts pure and simple, without doubt or criticism. The belief in miracles must retreat step by step before relentlessly and reliably progressing science and we cannot doubt that sooner or later it must vanish completely.

The esteemed historian of science, John L. Heilbron, characterized Planck's theological views as deistic. Heilbron further reported that when queried about his religious affiliation, Planck indicated that while he had always maintained a deep sense of religiosity, he did not believe "in a personal God, let alone a Christian God."

Philosophical Transition to Scientific Realism

Although Planck initially supported Ernst Mach's positivism, his subsequent discovery of the quantum of action prompted a shift towards scientific realism. He contended that the "world-picture" of physics should be founded upon objective realities that exist independently of human observation.

This philosophical position culminated in a notable public disagreement with Mach in 1908. Planck's conviction in an objective, causally determined universe, defined by "absolutes," was a significant factor in his early and steadfast endorsement of Einstein's theory of relativity. Conversely, this very realism later established him as a prominent critic of the probabilistic framework inherent in the Copenhagen interpretation, which was championed by Niels Bohr.

Musical Pursuits and Absolute Pitch

Planck was an exceptionally accomplished musician, endowed with absolute pitch. He displayed talent as a pianist, organist, and cellist, and even composed an opera titled Die Liebe im Walde during his university period.

Throughout his life, Planck's residence in Berlin functioned as a significant cultural hub, where he regularly hosted musical soirées. These gatherings frequently featured Albert Einstein on the violin and the distinguished violinist Joseph Joachim. Planck once remarked that both the laws of physics and the laws of harmony offered distinct pathways to understanding universal absolutes.

Accolades and Recognition

Memberships

Orders

Awards

Commemoration

Publications

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About Max Planck

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