Renaissance humanism represents a philosophical perspective that prioritizes human nature and significance, originating from the scholarly engagement with classical antiquity.
Renaissance humanists aimed to cultivate a populace proficient in eloquent and clear communication, thereby enabling active participation in civic affairs and the persuasion of others towards virtuous and judicious conduct. Although initially established by a restricted elite with access to education and texts, humanism was conceived as a broad cultural initiative designed to permeate all societal strata. Its core objective was to revitalize the cultural heritage, literary traditions, and ethical philosophy of Greco-Roman civilization.
This intellectual movement originated in Italy before disseminating throughout Western Europe during the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. Historically, the term humanist (Italian: umanista) designated educators and scholars engaged in the humanities, specifically the studia humanitatis. This curriculum encompassed the study of Latin and Ancient Greek literatures, grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and moral philosophy. The nomenclature shifted in the 19th century, when the field began to be referred to as humanism, replacing the earlier designation of humanities. Subsequently, the retronym Renaissance humanism was introduced to differentiate it from subsequent humanist movements.
Predominantly, Renaissance humanists adhered to Christianity, focusing their efforts on "purifying and renewing Christianity" rather than abolishing it. Their objective was to revert ad fontes ("to the pure sources"), specifically the Gospels, the New Testament, and the writings of the Church Fathers, thereby circumventing the intricate theological frameworks of the medieval period.
Definition
Broadly construed, the intellectual endeavor of Italian Renaissance humanists during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries centered on the studia humanitatis, defined as the study of the humanities, or "a curriculum focusing on language skills." This initiative aimed to resurrect the cultural heritage of ancient Greece and Rome through its literary and philosophical traditions, leveraging this classical resurgence to instill the moral principles of antiquity within the ruling classes—an undertaking James Hankins characterizes as "virtue politics." Nevertheless, the precise composition of this studia humanitatis remains a subject of considerable scholarly discourse. As one prominent scholar of the movement observes:
Early Italian humanism, which in many respects continued the grammatical and rhetorical traditions of the Middle Ages, not merely provided the old Trivium with a new and more ambitious name (Studia humanitatis), but also increased its actual scope, content and significance in the curriculum of the schools and universities and in its own extensive literary production. The studia humanitatis excluded logic, but they added to the traditional grammar and rhetoric not only history, Greek, and moral philosophy, but also made poetry, once a sequel of grammar and rhetoric, the most important member of the whole group.
Nevertheless, Benjamin G. Kohl, in his article "The changing concept of the studia humanitatis in the early Renaissance," meticulously examines this definition, detailing the diverse interpretations the term acquired throughout the period.
- Approximately in the mid-fourteenth century, when the term initially gained currency among Italian literati, its application specifically referenced the cultural and moral sentiments articulated in Cicero's Pro Archia poeta (62 BCE).
- The Tuscan humanist Coluccio Salutati significantly popularized the term during the 1370s, employing the phrase to denote culture and erudition as a framework for ethical living, with particular emphasis on rhetoric and public speaking. Subsequently, his usage evolved to encompass specific literary commendations of his contemporaries. Later, he regarded the studia humanitatis as instrumental for the critical editing and restoration of ancient texts, and even for comprehending scripture and other sacred writings.
- It was not until the commencement of the quattrocento (15th century) that the studia humanitatis became formally linked with specific academic disciplines. This association emerged when Pier Paolo Vergerio, in his work De ingenuis moribus, underscored the critical role of rhetoric, history, and moral philosophy as instruments for ethical development.
- By the mid-century, the term achieved more formal adoption, being utilized in Bologna and Padua to designate university curricula that incorporated these disciplines alongside Latin poetry, subsequently disseminating northward across Italy.
- However, the comprehensive application of this term, encompassing grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and moral philosophy, first emerged when Tommaso Parentucelli provided recommendations for Cosimo de' Medici's library collection, stating: "de studiis autem humanitatis quantum ad grammaticam, rhetoricam, historicam et poeticam spectat ac moralem" ("concerning studies of the humanities, insofar as they [consist of] grammar, rhetoric, history and poetry, and also ethics").
Consequently, the phrase studia humanitatis acquired diverse interpretations throughout the centuries, with humanists in various Italian city-states adopting and disseminating different definitions. Nevertheless, it consistently denoted a mode of learning—whether formal or informal—aimed at fostering moral development.
Inspired by classical antiquity, Renaissance humanists developed innovative rhetorical approaches and new educational paradigms. Some scholars contend that humanism also articulated novel moral and civic perspectives, offering guiding principles for all citizens. Renaissance humanism emerged as a counter-movement to what later Whig historians characterized as the "narrow pedantry" associated with medieval scholasticism.
History
During the late 13th and early 14th centuries, a significant cultural transformation began in several European regions. The rediscovery, intensive study, and renewed appreciation for previously forgotten authors and the classical world they represented spurred a vibrant resurgence of ancient linguistic, stylistic, and literary models. This period fostered an awareness of the necessity for cultural renewal, which occasionally entailed a departure from contemporary cultural norms. Manuscripts and inscriptions were highly sought after, and graphic models from antiquity were frequently emulated. This "return to the ancients" constituted the primary element of what is termed "pre-humanism," particularly flourishing in Tuscany, the Veneto region, and at the papal court of Avignon, through the efforts of figures such as Lovato Lovati and Albertino Mussato in Padua, Landolfo Colonna in Avignon, Ferreto de' Ferreti in Vicenza, Convenevole from Prato in Tuscany and subsequently in Avignon, among numerous others.
By the 14th century, several pioneering humanists, including Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio, Coluccio Salutati, and Poggio Bracciolini, distinguished themselves as prominent collectors of antique manuscripts. Among these, Petrarch earned the appellation "Father of Humanism" for his pioneering advocacy of studying pagan civilizations and teaching classical virtues as a means to preserve Christian values. He also maintained a personal library, though many of its manuscripts have not survived. Many humanists, like Petrarch, served the Catholic Church and held holy orders, while others functioned as lawyers and chancellors in Italian cities, thereby gaining access to book copying workshops, exemplified by Petrarch's disciple Salutati, who was the Chancellor of Florence.
In Italy, the humanist educational curriculum rapidly gained acceptance, leading to many members of the upper classes receiving humanist instruction by the mid-15th century, often in conjunction with traditional scholastic education. High-ranking officials within the Catholic Church were frequently humanists who possessed the resources to accumulate substantial libraries. A notable example is Cardinal Basilios Bessarion, a convert from Greek Orthodoxy to Catholicism, who was considered for the papacy and recognized as one of the most erudite scholars of his era. Several 15th-century and early 16th-century Popes were humanists, including Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini (Pope Pius II), a prolific author who composed a treatise titled The Education of Boys. These academic disciplines collectively became known as the humanities, and the intellectual movement they inspired is identified as humanism.
The influx of Byzantine Greek scholars and émigrés following the Crusader sacking of Constantinople and the eventual collapse of the Byzantine Empire in 1453 significantly augmented the Latin texts previously discovered by scholars like Petrarch in monastic libraries. Their profound familiarity with ancient Greek works proved instrumental in the revival of Greek literature and science. Prominent figures among these scholars included Gemistus Pletho, George of Trebizond, Theodorus Gaza, and John Argyropoulos.
Key centers of Renaissance humanism were established in Bologna, Ferrara, Florence, Genoa, Livorno, Mantua, Padua, Pisa, Naples, Rome, Siena, Venice, Vicenza, and Urbino.
Italian humanism extended into Spain, with Francisco de Vitoria emerging as its foremost proponent. His seminal work on the rights of Spanish subjects in America led to his recognition as the father of modern international law. Vitoria founded the School of Salamanca, with Antonio de Nebrija as a prominent member. Additionally, a humanist circle developed around King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, including figures such as Alfonso and Juan de Valdés, Juan Luis Vives, and Luisa Sigea. Charles also designated another distinguished humanist, Mercurino di Gattinara, as his chancellor. The Valdés brothers, Gattinara, and Antonio de Guevara advocated for the reestablishment of a Christian, universal Roman Empire, a concept initially derived from Dante Alighieri's Monarchia. The persistent state of warfare in Spain, exemplified by conflicts such as the Italian Wars and the Ottoman-Habsburg Wars, fostered a militant interpretation of humanism known as las armas y las letras ("the weapons and the letters"), initially articulated within Charles' court by Baldassare Castiglione.
Humanism also extended northward into France, Germany, the Low Countries, Poland-Lithuania, Hungary, and England, facilitated by the widespread adoption of printing technology post-1500, and subsequently became intertwined with the Reformation movement. In France, the distinguished humanist Guillaume Budé (1467–1540) employed the philological methodologies of Italian humanism in his examinations of ancient numismatics and legal history, producing an exhaustive commentary on Justinian's Code. Budé, a royal absolutist (in contrast to the republican stance of early Italian umanisti), was actively engaged in civic affairs, serving as a diplomat for Francis I and contributing to the establishment of the Collège des Lecteurs Royaux (later known as the Collège de France). Concurrently, Marguerite de Navarre, sister of Francis I, distinguished herself as a poet, novelist, and religious mystic, fostering and safeguarding a literary circle of vernacular poets and authors, including Clément Marot, Pierre de Ronsard, and François Rabelais.
Pagan and Christian Thought in the Renaissance
A significant number of humanists were ecclesiastical figures, including prominent pontiffs such as Pius II, Sixtus IV, and Leo X, and senior church officials frequently extended patronage to humanists. A substantial portion of humanist endeavors focused on enhancing the comprehension and translation of biblical and early Christian scriptures, both preceding and following the Reformation, a movement significantly shaped by the contributions of non-Italian, Northern European scholars like Erasmus, Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, William Grocyn, and the exiled Swedish Catholic Archbishop Olaus Magnus.
Description
The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy highlights the profound influence of ancient rationalist thought on Renaissance intellectuals:
Here, one felt no weight of the supernatural pressing on the human mind, demanding homage and allegiance. Humanity—with all its distinct capabilities, talents, worries, problems, possibilities—was the center of interest. It has been said that medieval thinkers philosophised on their knees, but, bolstered by the new studies, they dared to stand up and to rise to full stature.
For instance, in 1417, Poggio Bracciolini unearthed the long-lost manuscript of Lucretius's De rerum natura, a text elucidating Epicurean philosophy, although Renaissance scholars of the era largely refrained from extensive commentary on its philosophical content, focusing instead on Lucretius's grammatical and syntactical aspects.
It was not until 1564 that the French commentator Denys Lambin (1519–72) declared in the work's preface that "he regarded Lucretius's Epicurean ideas as 'fanciful, absurd, and opposed to Christianity'." Lambin's prefatory remarks served as the authoritative interpretation until the nineteenth century. Epicurus's contentious doctrine, which posited pleasure as the supreme good, "ensured the unpopularity of his philosophy". Conversely, Lorenzo Valla presented a defense of Epicureanism through one of the interlocutors in his dialogues.
Epicureanism
Charles Trinkhaus interprets Valla's "Epicureanism" as a strategic maneuver, not genuinely held by Valla, but intended to challenge Stoicism, a philosophy he considered, alongside Epicureanism, to be equally subordinate to Christian doctrine. Valla's advocacy, or rather adaptation, of Epicurean principles was subsequently adopted by Erasmus, the "Prince of Humanists," in his work The Epicurean.
If individuals who lead agreeable lives are considered Epicureans, then the righteous and pious exemplify this philosophy most authentically. Furthermore, if nomenclature is a concern, no figure is more deserving of the appellation 'Epicurean' than Christ, the revered founder and leader of Christian philosophy, given that the Greek term epikouros signifies 'helper'. He uniquely provided crucial assistance to humanity in its decline, at a time when the natural law was nearly obliterated by transgression, the Mosaic law provoked rather than remedied vices, and Satan held undisputed dominion over the world. Consequently, those who erroneously portray Christ as possessing a melancholic and somber disposition, advocating a bleak existence, are profoundly mistaken. Conversely, he alone reveals the most gratifying life, replete with genuine contentment.
This excerpt illustrates the humanist perspective, which perceived pagan classical texts, including Epicurean philosophy, as congruent with their Christian theological interpretations.
Neo-Platonism
Renaissance Neo-Platonists, including Marsilio Ficino, whose Latin translations of Plato's writings remained influential until the 19th century, endeavored to harmonize Platonism with Christian doctrine, drawing upon the proposals of early Church Fathers Lactantius and Saint Augustine. Following this intellectual trajectory, Pico della Mirandola sought to forge a syncretic integration of various religions and philosophies with Christianity; however, his efforts were not endorsed by ecclesiastical authorities, who repudiated his work due to his perspectives on magic.
Evolution and Reception
Renaissance historian Sir John Hale advises against establishing an overly direct correlation between Renaissance humanism and contemporary applications of the term. He states: "Renaissance humanism must be kept free from any hint of either 'humanitarianism' or 'humanism' in its modern sense of rational, non-religious approach to life ... the word 'humanism' will mislead ... if it is seen in opposition to a Christianity its students in the main wished to supplement, not contradict, through their patient excavation of the sources of ancient God-inspired wisdom."
Individual Freedom
Historian Steven Kreis articulates a widely held perspective, originating from the 19th-century Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt, asserting that:
The era spanning the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries fostered the broader emancipation of the individual. Northern Italian city-states, through their engagement with diverse Eastern customs, progressively allowed for greater latitude in matters of aesthetic preference and attire. The works of Dante, and notably the principles espoused by Petrarch and humanists such as Machiavelli, underscored the merits of intellectual autonomy and personal expression. Montaigne's essays arguably present the most compelling and articulate exposition of an individualistic worldview within the annals of literary and philosophical history.
Among certain Renaissance humanists, two significant intellectual currents emerged: Renaissance Neo-Platonism and Hermeticism. Through the contributions of figures such as Nicholas of Cusa, Giordano Bruno, Cornelius Agrippa, Tommaso Campanella, and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, these trends occasionally approached the formation of a distinct religious system. Of these, Hermeticism has maintained substantial ongoing influence in Western intellectual traditions, whereas Neo-Platonism largely receded as a dominant intellectual movement, subsequently contributing to Western esoteric currents like Theosophy and New Age philosophies. Frances Yates's 'Yates thesis' posits that esoteric Renaissance thought, prior to its decline, introduced several concepts instrumental to the evolution of the scientific method, although this assertion remains a subject of scholarly debate.
Sixteenth Century and Beyond
Although humanists persisted in employing their scholarly endeavors in support of the Church well into and past the mid-sixteenth century, the intensely adversarial religious climate subsequent to the Reformation precipitated the Counter-Reformation. This movement aimed to suppress dissent against Catholic theology, with comparable initiatives observed among Protestant denominations. Certain humanists, including moderate Catholics like Erasmus, faced the peril of being branded heretics due to their perceived critiques of the institutional Church.
Several prominent humanists integrated into the Reformation, assuming leadership roles; notable figures include Philipp Melanchthon, Ulrich Zwingli, Henry VIII, John Calvin, and William Tyndale. Conversely, some, such as Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples, expressed support for the movement while retaining their Catholic affiliation.
The Counter-Reformation, inaugurated by the Council of Trent (1545–1563), led to a rigidification of theological stances and the imposition of a stringent Catholic orthodoxy rooted in scholastic philosophy. Nevertheless, the educational frameworks established by the Jesuits incorporated humanist principles.
Historiography
Baron thesis
Hans Baron (1900–1988) is credited with originating the widely adopted term "civic humanism." Developed in the 1920s and primarily informed by his research on Leonardo Bruni, Baron's thesis posited a core current of humanism, especially prevalent in Florence and Venice, that was committed to republican ideals.
In his seminal work, chef-d'œuvre, The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance: Civic Humanism and Republican Liberty in an Age of Classicism and Tyranny, the German historian contended that civic humanism emerged around 1402, following the significant conflicts between Florence and Visconti-controlled Milan during the 1390s. He characterized Petrarch's humanism as a rhetorical and superficial endeavor, perceiving this novel intellectual current as a departure from the feudal and ostensibly "otherworldly" (i.e., divine) medieval ideology. Instead, it prioritized the republican state and its liberties within the "civic humanist" framework. Although contentious upon the publication of The Crisis, the "Baron Thesis" has garnered increased criticism over subsequent decades.
By the 1960s, historians Philip Jones and Peter Herde regarded Baron's commendation of "republican" humanists as naive, asserting that republics exhibited considerably less commitment to liberty than Baron had presumed and were, in practice, nearly as undemocratic as monarchies. James Hankins further observes that the divergence in political principles among humanists serving oligarchies versus those serving princes was not especially pronounced, given that humanists employed by diverse governmental structures embodied all of Baron's civic ideals. Consequently, Hankins posits that a "political reform program is central to the humanist movement founded by Petrarch. But it is not a 'republican' project in Baron's sense of republic; it is not an ideological product associated with a particular regime type."
Garin and Kristeller
Eugenio Garin and Paul Oskar Kristeller, two distinguished Renaissance scholars, maintained a collaborative relationship throughout their professional lives. Despite their amicable association, these two historians held fundamentally divergent perspectives regarding the essence of Renaissance humanism.
- Kristeller contended that Renaissance humanism was conventionally perceived solely as a Classical revival initiative, which significantly advanced Classical scholarship. However, he argued that this interpretation "fails to explain the ideal of eloquence persistently set forth in the writings of the humanists," maintaining that "their classical learning was incidental to" their primary role as "professional rhetoricians." Likewise, he considered their impact on philosophy and the philosophical contributions of specific individuals to be secondary to their humanism, identifying grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and ethics as the principal preoccupations of humanists.
- Conversely, Garin conceptualized philosophy as an inherently dynamic discipline, with each philosophical manifestation inextricably linked to the intellectual practices of its respective era. Consequently, he regarded the Italian humanists' divergence from Scholasticism and their emergent intellectual autonomy as entirely consistent with this expansive understanding of philosophy.
Concurrently with their debates concerning these contrasting viewpoints, a wider cultural discourse on Humanism was unfolding, centered on the ideas of Jean-Paul Sartre and Martin Heidegger.
- In 1946, Sartre released a publication titled "L'existentialisme est un humanisme," wherein he articulated his understanding of existentialism. This perspective posits that "existence precedes essence," meaning that individuals "first of all exist, encounter themselves, emerge into the world – and subsequently define themselves," thereby constructing their own identity and purpose.
- Heidegger, responding to Sartre's work, asserted: "For this is humanism: meditating and caring, that human beings be human and not inhumane, 'inhuman', that is, outside their essence." He further contended that the concept of humanism had deteriorated, becoming subsumed by metaphysics and thus dismissing its philosophical validity. His letter also contained explicit criticism of Italian Renaissance humanism.
Although this discourse occurred beyond the scope of Renaissance Studies, the underlying debate significantly influenced the continuing disagreement between Kristeller and Garin. Kristeller, who had previously studied with Heidegger, similarly dismissed Renaissance humanism as a distinct philosophy. Notably, Garin's Der italienische Humanismus was published concurrently with Heidegger's response to Sartre, a strategic move Rubini characterizes as an effort "to stage a pre-emptive confrontation between historical humanism and philosophical neo-humanisms." Garin additionally posited that Renaissance humanists experienced a "characteristic angst the existentialists attributed to men who had suddenly become conscious of their radical freedom," thereby further integrating philosophy with Renaissance humanism.
Hankins encapsulates the Kristeller versus Garin debate as follows:
- Kristeller conceptualized professional philosophers as highly formal and methodologically oriented. Conversely, he regarded Renaissance humanists as professional rhetoricians who, employing their classically-inspired paideia or institutio, indeed advanced fields like philosophy, yet without the primary objective or function of practicing philosophy itself.
- Garin, in contrast, envisioned his "humanist-philosophers" as organic intellectuals, not forming a rigid intellectual school, but rather sharing a common perspective on life and education that diverged from preceding medieval traditions.
I. R. Grigulevich
According to Iosif Grigulevich, a Russian historian and Stalinist assassin, two defining characteristics of late Renaissance humanism were "its revolt against abstract, Aristotelian modes of thought and its concern with the problems of war, poverty, and social injustice."
Christian humanism
- Christian humanism
- Greek scholars in the Renaissance
- Legal humanists
- List of Renaissance humanists
- New Learning
- Renaissance Latin
- Renaissance humanism in Northern Europe
Notes
- Humanism 1: An Outline by Albert Rabil, Jr.
- Paganism in the Renaissance, a BBC Radio 4 discussion featuring Tom Healy, Charles Hope, and Evelyn Welch (In Our Time, June 16, 2005).