Secularism denotes the principle of managing human affairs through naturalistic considerations, independent of religious involvement. This concept is widely understood as the separation of religion from civil governance and state functions, and it can extend to a broader stance aiming to eliminate or reduce religion's influence in any public domain. Secularism may encompass various ideologies, including anti-clericalism, atheism, naturalism, non-sectarianism, religious neutrality, or even antireligion. While frequently misconstrued as opposition to religion, secularism primarily seeks to minimize religion's societal role rather than to refute its tenets, and its stance toward religion can range from hostile to neutral or hospitable. Philosophically, secularism is synonymous with naturalism, aiming to interpret existence based exclusively on principles derived from the material world and concentrating solely on temporal and material concerns.
Secularism is the principle of seeking to conduct human affairs based on naturalistic considerations, uninvolved with religion. It is most commonly thought of as the separation of religion from civil affairs and the state and may be broadened to a similar position seeking to remove or to minimize the role of religion in any public sphere. Secularism may encapsulate anti-clericalism, atheism, naturalism, non-sectarianism, neutrality on topics of religion, or antireligion. Although often conflated with opposition to religion, secularism is concerned with minimizing its role rather than disproving it, and may be either hostile, neutral or hospitable to religion. When presented as a philosophy, secularism is another term for naturalism, seeking to interpret life based on principles derived solely from the material world and focusing only on "temporal" and material concerns.
Distinct traditions of secularism exist, exemplified by the French, Turkish, American, and Indian models. These models exhibit significant variations, ranging from the American emphasis on preventing an established religion and upholding freedom of belief, to the more interventionist French approach. The rationales and justifications for secularism are diverse, encompassing arguments that it is essential for modernization, that religion and traditional values are regressive and divisive, or that it uniquely safeguards the free exercise of religion.
Variations
Secularism manifests in diverse forms, each adopting distinct positions regarding the extent and manner of religion's separation from other societal domains. Individuals from any religious denomination may endorse a secular society or embrace secularist principles, though a secularist identity is frequently linked with non-religious individuals, such as atheists. Political secularism comprises the various intellectual currents within secularism that address the state's regulation of religion. Religious minorities and non-religious citizens typically advocate for political secularism, whereas adherents of the majority religion often express opposition. Secular nationalists are individuals who champion political secularism within their respective nations.
Academics delineate several distinct forms of political secularism within societies. The most stringent manifestation, exemplified by the French *laïque* model, posits a state rigorously and officially detached from all religious and non-religious philosophical convictions across all its operations and official interactions, without exception. A more humanistic variant maintains indifference towards religions per se, yet simultaneously advocates for states to function solely on a rational foundation of evidence-based policy, prioritizing human needs and welfare, thereby ensuring non-discrimination among individuals holding diverse religious and non-religious philosophical convictions throughout society. A third, "liberal" or "pillarized" model of secularism permits governments, in certain circumstances, to express sympathy, provide funding, license state services, or otherwise grant unique special treatment to religions (a practice prevalent in German-speaking and Benelux secular states), provided that states consistently treat all such convictions equally, exhibiting neither hostility nor preferential treatment towards any specific religious or non-religious philosophical conviction, including humanism. In these nations, secular humanist organizations commonly receive state funding disbursed according to the identical formulas applied to religious groups. Within Indian political discourse, the pejorative descriptor 'pseudo-secularism' is employed to denote situations where, despite the state's proclaimed secularism, indifference, or impartiality towards religions, its policies are perceived to actually favor one religion over others.
Political secularism encompasses a range of fundamental principles. A core tenet is the advocacy for legal parity among individuals, irrespective of their religious affiliations or lack thereof, thereby rejecting any legal stratification based on belief. Furthermore, it champions the separation of religious institutions from governmental bodies, viewing them as distinct entities requiring independent treatment. State supremacy, a secular principle, prioritizes adherence to civil law above religious decrees or canon law, whereas internal constraint opposes governmental intrusion into an individual's private life. Within a politically secular framework, the state may regulate conduct but not dictate personal beliefs. Concurrently, secularism upholds freedom of thought. Proponents of secularism advocate for societal order, specifically asserting that individual beliefs should not disrupt public tranquility. Religious tolerance is fostered, extending to adherents of diverse faiths and to individuals within one's own religion who exhibit varying degrees of piety. Moreover, political secularism values reason as a fundamental virtue. Secularists also champion freedom from religion, viewing it as a natural extension of religious freedom.
Diversity
The terms "secular" and "religion" are Western constructs, not universally applicable across all cultures, languages, or historical periods, leading to diverse manifestations of secularism. Significant scholarly discourse surrounds the definitional boundaries of both religion and secularism, with some proposing "post-secular" frameworks to account for increasing religious influence that challenges traditional secularist assumptions. Historically, secularism exhibits an intricate relationship with religion, tracing its origins to ancient religious texts like the Bible and evolving through the contributions of religious thinkers. Individuals identifying as secular often maintain multifaceted relationships with religion. Global research indicates that a substantial number of individuals who do not self-identify with a religion nonetheless adhere to religious beliefs and engage in religious practices.
History
The concept of "secular" and secularism itself is a Western construct, lacking universal applicability across all cultures, languages, or historical contexts. The term "secularism" was coined in Britain in 1851. In societies such as Ancient Greece, a limited form of secularism was practiced, wherein religion was not directly involved in governance, though it remained prevalent in public life.
The genesis of secularism can be traced to biblical texts and subsequently elaborated throughout Christian history into the contemporary period. The concept of the "secular" is integral to Christian ecclesiastical history, notably including secular clergy since the medieval era. A clear differentiation between secular and religious law gained prominence in the Late Antique and early medieval Western contexts. During the medieval period, secular and religious entities, though distinguishable, coexisted and interacted organically. Key principles foundational to modern secularism were significantly advanced by influential theologians and Christian authors, including St. Augustine, William of Ockham, Marsilius of Padua, Martin Luther, Roger Williams, John Locke, and Talleyrand.
In Europe, secularism emerged as a formal ideology during the early modern period. Due to functional differentiation, religion transitioned from being the predominant lens through which reality was interpreted to providing only an alternative explanatory approach.
In 1636, Roger Williams established the Providence Plantations, located in present-day Rhode Island, as a settlement characterized by complete freedom of religion. Secular ideas faced strong opposition from religious leaders, particularly the Catholic Church, leading to a religious culture war. During the American Revolution, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison incorporated John Locke's ideas, including his secular principles, into the governmental framework of the United States, although a truly secular state was not fully realized until the 20th century. French secularism during the Age of Enlightenment was rooted in Gallicanism, which emphasized state supremacy, alongside anti-clericalism and materialism. Revolutionary France actively opposed Catholic influence within the country, briefly replacing Christianity with the deistic Cult of Reason.
The British agnostic author George Holyoake first employed the existing term "secularism" in its modern context in 1851. Perceiving "atheism" as unduly provocative, Holyoake sought a descriptor for a philosophical stance that advocated for conducting life based exclusively on naturalistic (secular) principles, without necessarily rejecting religious belief, thereby fostering collaboration with adherents of faith. Holyoake's initial conceptualization of secularism diverges from its subsequent interpretations by later scholars. As highlighted by the Humanist Heritage website, Holyoake's definition of secularism closely resembles contemporary understandings of humanism, extending beyond mere atheism. More recent definitions of secularism typically emphasize the separation of church and state rather than individual spiritual convictions.
During the 20th century, numerous predominantly Christian nations experienced societal secularization, marked by a decline in religious adherence and practice. Sociologists remain divided on whether this trend signifies a cyclical variation or a broader, long-term shift towards the adoption of secularism. In France, the principle of strict separation, known as Laïcité, was codified into law in 1905. Following Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's ascent to power in 1923, Turkish secularism, or laiklik, was institutionalized as a state ideology under Kemalism, with the objective of modernizing the nation. Turkey's secular traditions prior to Atatürk's reforms were limited, and 20th-century Turkish secularism initially drew inspiration from French laïcité. Turkey remains virtually the sole Muslim-majority country with an effectively secular government, although secularism continues to be a contentious ideology within the nation, and the ruling AKP party exhibits a more anti-Kemalist than anti-secularist stance. India adopted a secular state model upon achieving independence in 1947; Mahatma Gandhi championed pluralist secularism as a mechanism to mitigate tensions within the religiously diverse country. The Indian approach to secularism underscored the legal equality of citizens irrespective of faith, alongside a degree of separation. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, proclaimed in 1948, established protections for freedom of religion under international law.
State Secularism
In political discourse, secularism represents a movement advocating for the disengagement of religion from governmental affairs, frequently referred to as the separation of church and state. This concept encompasses various actions, including reducing governmental ties to a state religion, replacing religiously derived legal codes (such as Halakha, Dharmaśāstra, and Sharia) with civil legislation, and eradicating religious discrimination. Such measures are often posited to enhance democracy by safeguarding the rights of religious minorities. The separation of church and state constitutes one potential strategy employed by secular governments. These governments, ranging from democratic to authoritarian, share a common objective: to circumscribe the influence of religion within the state-religion dynamic. Each state may formulate distinct policy frameworks, which can include complete separation or the meticulous oversight and regulation of organized religion, as observed in nations like France, Turkey, and India.
Consistent with the principle of separating church and state, secularists generally advocate for political decisions to be grounded in secular rather than religious rationales. Consequently, American secularist organizations, such as the Center for Inquiry, prominently focus on policy debates concerning issues like abortion, contraception, embryonic stem cell research, same-sex marriage, and sex education. Conversely, religious fundamentalists frequently oppose secular governance, contending that it contradicts the historical religious character of nations or infringes upon their rights to public religious expression. In the United States, for instance, such efforts have led to "secularism" being equated with "anti-religion." Nevertheless, religious minorities often endorse secularism as a means of safeguarding their rights against potential majoritarian dominance.
State secularism is predominantly associated with the European Age of Enlightenment and plays a significant role in Western societies. Notable examples of states recognized as "constitutionally secular" include the United States, France, Turkey, India, Mexico, and South Korea, although their respective governance structures concerning religion are not identical. For instance, Indian secularism does not entail a complete separation between state and religion, whereas French secularism explicitly prohibits such mutual involvement.
Frameworks
Separationist secularism mandates a strict division between religious institutions and governmental authority. Within this framework, the state refrains from endorsing any religious denomination and abstains from enacting religious legislation. Key challenges for separationist secularism involve determining the appropriate governmental oversight for the secular activities of religious organizations and maintaining governmental neutrality when citizens, including public servants, hold religious beliefs. During the 20th century, the federal judiciary of the United States construed the U.S. Constitution as upholding this model, drawing upon the philosophical contributions of John Locke and Thomas Jefferson.
Laïcité represents a distinct secularist framework originating and implemented in France. This system asserts the legal primacy of the state over religious institutions and mandates the circumscription of religious expression within the public domain. Its foundation was laid by a 1905 statute, with subsequent legislation further limiting the display of religious symbols in public spaces or by minors. Kemalist secularism, also known as laiklik, constitutes an adaptation of laïcité, instituted in Turkey by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk during the 1920s and 1930s.
Accommodationism denotes a framework that generally supports religion without preferential treatment for any particular religious denomination. Within this model, the state imposes minimal constraints on religious practices and frequently extends financial assistance to religious entities. India adopts this system, integrating Western concepts of secularism with its indigenous heritage of religious and ethnic diversity. A notable point of contention concerning accommodationism in India revolves around the right of Muslims to adhere concurrently to both the civil code and Sharia, and the resultant complexities. Accommodationism also possesses a historical precedent in the United States, with the nation demonstrating an escalating inclination towards this approach in the 21st century.
State atheism represents a comprehensive prohibition of religious practice. Within this framework, the state enacts legislation that proscribes religious observance and the public articulation of religious convictions. In contrast to other secularist paradigms, state atheism precludes freedom of conscience and the disjunction of governmental authority from individual faith. Due to this fundamental difference, state atheism's classification as a form of secularism remains debatable. This ideology is commonly linked with Marxism and Communist regimes, where it is frequently termed "scientific atheism".
Secular society
Within the academic discourse on religion, contemporary democracies are broadly characterized as secular. This classification stems from the extensive religious freedom afforded (where religious convictions are largely exempt from legal or societal penalties) and the limited influence of religious leaders on political governance. However, assertions have been made, supported by surveys conducted by the Pew Research Center, indicating that Americans generally exhibit greater comfort with religion assuming a prominent role in public discourse, whereas in Europe, the influence of religious institutions on public life is reportedly diminishing.
The increasing secularization of most societies typically arises from processes of social and economic development and advancement, rather than from the deliberate efforts of specific secular movements. Since the era of Max Weber, modern sociology has frequently focused on the issue of authority within secularized societies and on secularization itself as a sociological or historical phenomenon. Current ethical discussions in Western contexts are frequently characterized as "secular" due to their independence from religious frameworks. Notable 20th-century scholars whose contributions have advanced the comprehension of these subjects include Carl L. Becker, Karl Löwith, Hans Blumenberg, M. H. Abrams, Peter L. Berger, Paul Bénichou, and D. L. Munby, among others.
Secular culture is not monolithic, as individuals identify as secularists for diverse reasons and adhere to various belief systems. Secularism is commonly associated with progressivism and social liberalism. In democratic nations, highly educated, middle and upper-class white urban males exhibit a higher propensity to identify as secularist compared to other demographic groups. However, in societies where secularism is more prevalent, such as in Western Europe, the demographic distribution of secularists tends to be more equitable. Societal perceptions of what constitutes secularism can also evolve, potentially integrating nominally spiritual beliefs into public or private life without formal religious recognition. Given that secularists often represent a minority within most communities, secularism frequently encounters stigmatization. Proponents of religious society often challenge secular society on moral grounds, asserting that secularism lacks an effective mechanism to foster ethical conduct among its adherents.
Secular Philosophy
Secularism is a significant subject within both political philosophy and the philosophy of religion. As a philosophical stance, secularism is intimately linked with naturalism and materialism, which reject the consideration of immaterial or supernatural entities, such as a soul, in favor of a purely material universe. This foundation of secular materialism and rationalism underpins the majority of modern empirical science. During the Age of Enlightenment, prominent liberal European philosophers, including Baruch Spinoza, John Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire, David Hume, Adam Smith, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, each proposed distinct models for the separation of church and state. The contributions of renowned moral philosophers like Derek Parfit and Peter Singer, alongside the entire field of contemporary bioethics, have been characterized as explicitly secular or non-religious.
A central inquiry within secular philosophy concerns the nature of morality in a material universe. Secular ethics and secular morality delineate systems of right and wrong that operate independently of religious or supernatural frameworks. A substantial portion of Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophical work was developed in response to this very issue. Within secular ethics, "good" is typically defined as that which contributes to "human flourishing and justice," rather than an abstract or idealized concept of goodness. Secular ethics are frequently examined through the lens of humanism.
Secularism in Late 20th Century Political Philosophy
Numerous non-governmental organizations (NGOs) advocating for secularism tend to define secularism as a foundational common ground enabling all life stance groups, whether religious or atheistic, to thrive within a society that upholds freedom of speech and conscience. The National Secular Society in the UK exemplifies this perspective, which is widely shared among secular activists globally. Conversely, many scholars of Christianity and conservative politicians frequently interpret secularism as an antithesis to religion, viewing it as an endeavor to marginalize religion from society and supplant it with atheism or a vacuum of values, leading to nihilism. This inherent duality has complicated political discourse on the subject. Following John Rawls' seminal work, A Theory of Justice (1971), and its subsequent volume, Political Liberalism (1993), most political theorists in philosophy have adopted the concept of an overlapping consensus in preference to the term secularism. In Political Liberalism, Rawls identifies the idea of an overlapping consensus as one of three core tenets of political liberalism, arguing that the term secularism is inapplicable.
However, what constitutes a secular argument? Some define any argument that is reflective, critical, publicly intelligible, and rational as secular; [...], Nevertheless, a fundamental characteristic of political liberalism is its treatment of all such arguments identically to religious ones, thereby precluding these secular philosophical doctrines from providing public reasons. Secular concepts and reasoning of this nature pertain to first philosophy and moral doctrine, thus falling outside the purview of the political domain.
John Rawls's theoretical framework resonates with Holyoake's concept of a tolerant democracy, advocating for the equitable treatment of all life stance groups. Rawls's central premise suggests that individuals' self-interest motivates their endorsement of "a reasonable constitutional democracy" underpinned by "principles of toleration." His contributions have profoundly influenced political philosophy scholars, with his concept of overlapping consensus largely supplanting secularism in their academic discourse. For instance, prominent modern political philosophy textbooks, such as Colin Farrelly's An Introduction to Contemporary Political Theory and Will Kymlicka's Contemporary Political Philosophy, do not even index the term "secularism," which appears only in a single footnote in the former. Nevertheless, the underlying subject matter receives extensive discussion and coverage, frequently referred to as overlapping consensus, pluralism, multiculturalism, or by alternative designations. Rajeev Bhargava's chapter "Political secularism" in The Oxford Handbook of Political Theory examines secularism within a global context, commencing with the assertion: "Secularism is a beleaguered doctrine."
- Desecularization – Proliferation or growth of religion
- Secular liberalism – Form of liberalism which involves secular values
References
Bibliography
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- Iain Benson "Considering Secularism"
- Steven Kettell, Secularism and Religion, Oxford Research Encyclopedias.