Anaximenes of Miletus (; Ancient Greek: Ἀναξιμένης ὁ Μιλήσιος, romanized: Anaximenēs ho Milēsios; c. 586/585 – c. 526/525 BC) was a pre-Socratic philosopher from Ancient Greece, specifically Miletus in Anatolia (present-day Turkey). He represented the final figure among the three philosophers of the Milesian School, following Thales and Anaximander. These three individuals are recognized by historians as the foundational philosophers of the Western world. Limited information exists regarding Anaximenes's life and contributions, primarily because all his original writings have been lost. Scholars and philosophers have reconstructed details about Anaximenes through the interpretation of later authors' accounts concerning him.
Anaximenes of Miletus (; Ancient Greek: Ἀναξιμένης ὁ Μιλήσιος, romanized: Anaximenēs ho Milēsios; c. 586/585 – c. 526/525 BC) was an Ancient Greek, pre-Socratic philosopher from Miletus in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). He was the last of the three philosophers of the Milesian School, after Thales and Anaximander. These three are regarded by historians as the first philosophers of the Western world. Little is known of Anaximenes's life and work, as all of his original texts are lost. Historians and philosophers have reconstructed information about Anaximenes by interpreting texts about him by later writers.
Anaximenes is recognized for his conviction that air constitutes the arche, serving as the fundamental cosmic element from which all phenomena originate. All three Milesian philosophers adhered to monism, positing a singular foundational source for all existence: Anaximenes identified air, Thales proposed water, and Anaximander suggested apeiron, an indeterminate infinity. It is widely presumed that Anaximenes received instruction from Anaximander, given the numerous similarities in their philosophical concepts. Despite Anaximenes's prominence as a Milesian philosopher in Ancient Greece, his significance is frequently understated compared to his counterparts in contemporary discourse.
Anaximenes posited that air could undergo transformation into various states via either rarefaction or condensation. Condensation, he theorized, would increase air's density, thereby converting it into wind, clouds, water, earth, and ultimately stone. Conversely, rarefaction would diminish air's density, leading to its eventual transformation into fire. Anaximenes additionally formulated a cosmological model depicting Earth as a flat disc suspended upon air, with the Sun and stars similarly flat and floating in proximity. He explained the Sun's apparent daily disappearance by suggesting its revolution around the Earth, causing it to be obscured by elevated landmasses during nighttime. As a prominent Milesian philosopher, Anaximenes stands among the earliest individuals to advance scientific inquiry. His ideas influenced numerous succeeding Pre-Socratic philosophers, including Heraclitus, Anaxagoras, Diogenes of Apollonia, and Xenophanes. Furthermore, he provided foundational examples for concepts such as natural science, physical change, and scholarly writing.
Biography
Anaximenes's birth is estimated to have occurred c. 586/585 BC. Existing biographical details concerning Anaximenes are scarce, primarily derived from accounts preserved by Ancient Greek philosophers, notably Aristotle and Theophrastus. Theophrastus indicates that Anaximenes was the son of Eurystratus, an associate of the philosopher Anaximander, and resided in Miletus. Historical records document Anaximenes as having become a student of Anaximander. It is probable that Anaximenes also received instruction in Homeric epics, Greek mythology, and Orphism, which potentially shaped his philosophical perspectives through their depiction of classical elements. It is generally presumed that he and the other Milesian philosophers possessed considerable wealth, enabling them to devote their time to philosophical pursuits.
Anaximander, Anaximenes's presumed mentor, was a Milesian philosopher who posited that apeiron, an indeterminate and infinite substance, constituted the origin of all existence. Anaximenes and Anaximander, alongside Thales, comprised two of the three Milesian philosophers. These individuals, all originating from Miletus, were the inaugural members of the Ionian School. Recognized as the earliest known figures to formulate theories concerning the material genesis of the cosmos without recourse to divine explanations, they are considered the pioneering philosophers of the Western world. According to Diogenes Laertius, Anaximenes's lifespan extended approximately from 585 to 524 BC. Anaximenes is known to have authored only one complete text, which may have served as a rejoinder to Anaximander's work, On Nature. Theophrastus characterized this text as exhibiting a "simple and economical Ionic style". Anaximenes passed away c. 526/525 BC.
Philosophy
Air as the arche
Anaximenes's philosophical tenets are primarily derived from the accounts preserved by subsequent thinkers, notably Aristotle and Theophrastus. These historical records indicate that every philosopher within the Milesian School adhered to material monism, striving to identify the arche (Ancient Greek: wikt:ἀρχή, lit. 'beginning, origin'), which represents the singular, fundamental substratum of all existence. While this concept is commonly interpreted as a substance, some scholars contend that such an interpretation might be anachronistic, as it potentially superimposes Aristotelian substance theory onto earlier philosophical frameworks. Anaximenes posited air as the arche. He delineated several fundamental elements as manifestations of air, arranging them by increasing density: fire, air, wind, clouds, water, earth, and stones. Philosophers infer that Anaximenes's theories were likely grounded in observable natural phenomena, particularly those associated with the water cycle, specifically the processes of rarefaction and condensation. He theorized that substances are formed either through condensation, which augments air's density, or through rarefaction, which diminishes it. The rarefaction process articulated by Anaximenes is frequently likened to felting.
Temperature held significant importance within Anaximenes's philosophical framework, leading him to formulate an early understanding of the relationship between temperature and density. He contended that rarefied air was less dense and consequently warmer, whereas condensed air was denser and thus colder; a proposition that modern scientific understanding has since disproven. This conviction stemmed from the observation that one's breath feels warm when exhaled with an open mouth, but cold when expelled through pursed lips.
Anaximenes extended his concept of air as the arche to address additional philosophical inquiries. He subscribed to the notion of physis, or the natural world, in contrast to theo, the divine realm. While Anaximenes attributed a certain divinity to air, he refrained from associating it with specific deities or anthropomorphic representations. He posited air as the primordial cause animating living systems, without suggesting any antecedent cause for air itself. Anaximenes also drew an analogy between the soul and air, characterizing the soul as that which is propelled by breath and motivates human actions. These tenets establish a link between the soul and the physical world, implying their shared material composition: air. Consequently, Anaximenes proposed that all entities, from individual souls to the cosmos itself, function according to identical principles, being sustained and directed by air. Notably, the Ancient Greek terms for 'wind' and 'soul' shared a common etymological root.
Central to Anaximenes's philosophy was a theory of perpetual change, manifested through continuous cycles governed by the dynamics of air. These cycles involved the interplay and eventual dominance of opposing forces. This phenomenon is most clearly exemplified in meteorological patterns and seasonal shifts, which oscillate between states such as hot and cold, dry and wet, or light and dark. Anaximenes maintained that no substance could be generated or annihilated; rather, it could only undergo transformation from one state to another. Based on this conviction, he advanced a model where the qualitative attributes of a substance are fundamentally determined by quantitative elements.
Cosmology and Meteorology
Anaximenes posited that the cosmos originated entirely from air, with liquids and solids subsequently forming through condensation. He further employed air to elucidate the composition of Earth and the adjacent celestial entities. He conceived of a flat Earth, which he believed was among the initial formations to condense from air. This Earth, according to his theory, is sustained by the atmospheric pressure beneath it, preventing it from sinking.
Anaximenes posited that celestial bodies originated from the Earth, having separated from it. Historical accounts from philosophers documenting Anaximenes's theories diverge regarding the precise mechanism of this separation. He potentially theorized their formation through processes of evaporation or rarefaction into fire. Anaximenes reportedly analogized the motion of the Earth, Sun, and stars to leaves drifting in the wind; however, he is also depicted as comparing stars to fixed nails within the celestial sphere. Certain scholars propose that Anaximenes might have embraced both conceptualizations by differentiating between planets and stars, thereby potentially becoming the first to establish such a distinction. Although the Sun is characterized as a flame, Anaximenes contended that its composition was not rarefied air, unlike the stars, but rather terrestrial material. Pseudo-Plutarch attributes to Anaximenes the belief that the Sun's combustion derives not from its inherent composition but from its swift movement.
Anaximenes disputed the prevalent notion that the Sun passed beneath the Earth, asserting instead that it revolved around it. Hippolytus drew an analogy, comparing this motion to a hat rotating around an individual's head. The origin of this analogy remains uncertain, specifically whether it was Hippolytus's independent formulation or an element of Anaximenes's original exposition. Subsequent philosophers have offered diverse interpretations of this solar motion model.
Anaximenes further elucidated the etiologies of various other natural phenomena. Consistent with Anaximander's views, he posited that thunder and lightning resulted from wind escaping after being confined within a cloud. He contended that earthquakes arose from the cyclical processes of the Earth's desiccation and saturation, leading to recurrent splitting and swelling. Anaximenes pioneered the scientific explanation of rainbows, remaining the sole philosopher to undertake this endeavor until Aristotle. He characterized rainbows as reflections of sunlight from clouds, theorizing that their diverse coloration stemmed from the interplay of light and darkness.
The Milesian Philosophical Context
Anaximenes's philosophical perspectives are often interpreted as synthesizing the theories of his two predecessors, Thales and Anaximander. The concept of air as the arche represents a boundless principle, echoing Anaximander's proposition that the arche constituted an abstract infinite, which he termed apeiron (Ancient Greek: ἄπειρον, literally 'unlimited' or 'boundless'). Concurrently, air, as the arche, functioned as a distinct substance, paralleling Thales's theory that water served as the arche. Anaximenes also embraced a cosmological model featuring a flat Earth, akin to Thales's conception. Both philosophers posited a flat Earth, asserting its support by the fundamental substance they believed constituted all existence; Thales envisioned a disc resting on water, whereas Anaximenes depicted it as supported by air. Furthermore, his cosmology did not substantially deviate from Anaximander's concepts, merely adapting them to align with his specific form of monism.
While Anaximenes's philosophical framework was built upon Anaximander's foundations, historical tradition suggests he also expressed critiques of his mentor in specific domains. Moreover, Anaximenes asserted the necessity of an empirical explanation for the transmutation of substances from one state to another.
A notable similarity between Anaximenes and Anaximander lies in the absence of known justifications for the specific mechanisms or reasons behind physical transformations. Anaximander, conversely, employed metaphors of justice and retribution to characterize change, and he directly referenced deities and the divine to substantiate his convictions. Anaximenes diverged from Anaximander concerning both of these conceptual approaches.
Philosophical Legacy and Scholarly Analysis
Impact on Scientific and Philosophical Thought
Anaximenes, the final Milesian philosopher, lived until Miletus was devastated by Persian forces in 494 BC. Compared to his Milesian predecessors, Thales and Anaximander, details regarding Anaximenes's life remain scarce. Collectively, these three philosophers initiated the intellectual tradition that would evolve into Western science. In ancient Greece, Anaximenes's philosophical concepts garnered significant esteem, gaining wider currency than those of his predecessors, partly due to popularization by figures like Diogenes of Apollonia. Nevertheless, in contemporary philosophical discourse, his contributions have been largely overshadowed by those of the other Milesian thinkers. Notably, Anaximenes was the inaugural philosopher to articulate a physical process explaining the transformation of substances between different states. He is also posited as the first philosopher to compose in descriptive prose rather than verse, thereby establishing an early form of scientific exposition. Direct preservation of Anaximenes's original writings is limited to fragments, and the extent of their divergence from the initial texts, as transcribed by later authors, remains uncertain. Consequently, comprehensive information regarding Anaximenes's life and philosophical perspectives is obscure, given that his complete works have not survived, and his legacy rests solely on fragmented accounts and interpretations by subsequent writers and polemicists. The lunar Anaximenes crater bears his name as a tribute.
Early medical theories mirrored Anaximenes's concepts, positing air as fundamental to health, serving both as a life-sustaining element and a vector for disease. Anaximenes's understanding of air has been analogized to the quantitative organization of atoms and subatomic particles that constitute all matter. Furthermore, his concept has been compared to the divine "breath of life" described in the Old Testament. His conceptualization of physical properties as quantitative distinctions applicable across both individual and universal scales became a cornerstone in the evolution of natural science. Anaximenes was the first philosopher to articulate his philosophical principles through practical analogies, likening global functions to observable everyday phenomena. Consequently, he was also the first to draw parallels between the operational principles of the individual and those of the cosmos. Specifically, he equated the breath essential to human existence with the air fundamental to the world's constitution. His conviction that identical properties governed phenomena at both human and cosmic scales was later substantiated by Isaac Newton.
Subsequent Interpretations
Although some of Anaximenes's writings were referenced during the Hellenistic period, no extant records of these documents currently survive. Philosophers including Heraclitus, Anaxagoras, and Diogenes of Apollonia demonstrably drew direct influence from Anaximenes's work. Diogenes of Apollonia notably integrated Anaximenes's concepts into Stoic philosophy. The philosophical notions satirized in Aristophanes's play The Clouds stemmed from the theories of both Anaximander and Anaximenes. Later, philosophers like Xenophanes adopted Anaximenes's cosmological model. Xenophanes's proposition that the arche consists of earth and water has also been construed as a direct response to Anaximenes's theories.
In the Phaedo, Plato alluded to the concept of air as the origin of thought, subsequently refuting it by arguing that an individual's physical condition does not dictate their destiny. Conversely, in the Timaeus, Plato favorably acknowledged Anaximenes's theory of matter, encompassing its seven states ranging from stone to fire. Aristotle, however, expressed critical views regarding Anaximenes's ideas. Within his Metaphysics, Aristotle categorized Anaximenes and his philosophical forebears as monists, defining them as thinkers who posited that all existence originates from a singular fundamental substance. This characterization subsequently gained widespread acceptance within philosophical discourse. Adherents of Aristotelian philosophy additionally regarded Anaximenes as a progenitor of naturalism. Following Aristotle, Theophrastus extended the doxographical tradition concerning the Milesian and other Ionian philosophers. Theophrastus characterized Anaximenes as a natural philosopher. Other ancient philosophers who engaged with Anaximenes's corpus include Simplicius, Aetius, Hippolytus, and Plutarch.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel posited that Anaximenes was the inaugural philosopher to integrate concepts from natural philosophy into the realm of the philosophy of consciousness. Conversely, Werner Heisenberg contended that Anaximenes' philosophical framework impeded scientific progress by diverting analytical focus from intrinsic physical properties. Karl Popper, however, proposed that Anaximenes and Anaximander pioneered a philosophy rooted in rationalist critique, fostering an environment where students could challenge their instructors, a practice that remained dormant until the Renaissance era.
Citations
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- Anaximenes of Miletus Life and Work – Fragments and Testimonies by Giannis Stamatellos
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