Arthur Schopenhauer

Arthur Schopenhauer ( SHOH-pən-how-ər; German: [ˈaʁtuːɐ̯ˈʃoːpn̩haʊɐ] ; 22 February 1788 – 21 September 1860) was a German philosopher. He is renowned for his 1818 treatise, The World as Will and Representation, later expanded in 1844. This seminal work posits the phenomenal world as a manifestation of a blind and irrational noumenal will. Drawing upon Immanuel Kant's transcendental idealism, Schopenhauer constructed an atheistic metaphysical and ethical framework that diverged from the prevailing tenets of German idealism.

Schopenhauer was a pioneering figure in Western philosophy, embracing and validating key principles of Indian philosophy, including asceticism, the concept of self-denial, and the idea of the world as mere appearance. His philosophical contributions are frequently cited as a prime example of philosophical pessimism. Despite receiving limited recognition during his lifetime, Schopenhauer's work profoundly influenced numerous fields posthumously, such as philosophy, literature, and science. His extensive writings on aesthetics, ethics, and psychology have left a lasting impression on a wide array of thinkers and artists.

Early life

Arthur Schopenhauer was born on February 22, 1788, in Danzig (then part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, now Gdańsk, Poland), specifically on Heiliggeistgasse (currently Św. Ducha 47). His parents, Heinrich Floris Schopenhauer and Johanna Schopenhauer (née Trosiener), both originated from affluent German patrician families. Although they had Protestant roots, they were not particularly devout. They were proponents of the French Revolution, identifying as republicans, cosmopolitans, and Anglophiles. Following Danzig's annexation by Prussia in 1793, Heinrich relocated to Hamburg, a free city operating under a republican constitution. His business, however, maintained operations in Danzig, where the majority of their extended family resided. Arthur's only sibling, Adele, was born on July 12, 1797.

In 1797, Arthur was dispatched to Le Havre, where he resided with the family of his father's business partner, Grégoire de Blésimaire. He reportedly enjoyed his two-year sojourn, acquiring fluency in French and cultivating an enduring friendship with Jean Anthime Grégoire de Blésimaire. By 1799, Arthur had also begun to play the flute.

In 1803, he embarked on a European tour with his parents, visiting Holland, Britain, France, Switzerland, Austria, and Prussia. While ostensibly a leisure trip, Heinrich utilized this opportunity to meet with several of his international business associates.

Heinrich offered Arthur a choice: either remain home to commence university preparations or accompany them to advance his merchant education. Arthur opted for the latter, a decision he later profoundly regretted due to the tedious nature of the merchant training. During the tour, he spent twelve weeks attending school in Wimbledon, London. There, he found himself perplexed by the strict and intellectual Anglicans, whom he characterized as superficial. Despite his general Anglophilia, he maintained a sharp critique of Anglican religiosity throughout his later life.

Furthermore, he experienced considerable pressure from his father, who grew increasingly critical of his academic performance.

In 1805, Heinrich drowned in a canal adjacent to their Hamburg residence. While an accidental death remained a possibility, both his wife and son suspected suicide. Heinrich was predisposed to anxiety and depression, conditions that intensified in his later years. His fastidiousness had escalated to the point where his wife began to question his mental stability. A quote states, "There was, in the father's life, some dark and vague source of fear which later made him hurl himself to his death from the attic of his house in Hamburg."

Arthur exhibited comparable moodiness during his formative years, frequently admitting to inheriting this trait from his father. The paternal side of the family also presented other documented cases of severe mental health issues. Despite these challenges, Schopenhauer held affection for his father and later spoke of him favorably. Heinrich bequeathed a substantial inheritance, divided equally among Johanna and the children. Arthur gained control of his share upon reaching legal majority. He prudently invested this inheritance in government bonds, generating an annual interest income that exceeded twice the typical salary of a university professor. Following his departure from the merchant apprenticeship, and with his mother's encouragement, he committed himself to academic pursuits at the Ernestine Gymnasium in Gotha, Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. During his time there, he also engaged in a vibrant social life among the local aristocracy, incurring significant expenses that greatly troubled his parsimonious mother. His tenure at the Gymnasium concluded after he composed a satirical poem targeting one of the schoolmasters. While Arthur asserted his departure was voluntary, a letter from his mother suggests he might have been expelled.

Arthur dedicated two years to mercantile pursuits to honor his deceased father. During this period, he questioned his ability to transition to a scholarly life. His previous training had primarily focused on practical mercantile skills, and he struggled with Latin, a prerequisite for an academic career.

His mother relocated with her daughter, Adele, to Weimar, then a prominent hub of German literature, to engage in the vibrant social scene among writers and artists. Arthur and his mother's separation was not amicable. In a letter, she expressed, "You are unbearable and burdensome, and very hard to live with; all your good qualities are overshadowed by your conceit, and made useless to the world simply because you cannot restrain your propensity to pick holes in other people." Johanna, his mother, was generally characterized as vivacious and sociable. She passed away 24 years subsequent to this period.

Arthur relocated to Hamburg to reside with his friend Jean Anthime, who was similarly pursuing studies to become a merchant.

Education

He subsequently moved to Weimar but chose not to reside with his mother, who had actively attempted to dissuade his arrival, citing their anticipated incompatibility. Their relationship further deteriorated due to profound temperamental disparities. He accused his mother of financial irresponsibility, flirtatiousness, and a desire to remarry, actions he deemed an affront to his father's memory. His mother, while affirming her affection, sharply criticized him for his moodiness, tactlessness, and argumentative nature, imploring him to modify his conduct to avoid alienating others. Arthur focused intently on his studies, which were progressing successfully, and simultaneously engaged in the customary social life, attending balls, parties, and theater performances. By this period, Johanna's renowned salon had become well-established among local intellectuals and dignitaries, with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe being its most celebrated attendee. Arthur frequented her gatherings, typically when he anticipated Goethe's presence, though the celebrated writer and statesman appeared to pay little attention to the young, unknown student. Goethe's distance may have stemmed from Johanna's warnings regarding her son's depressive and combative disposition, or from Goethe's strained relationship with Arthur's language instructor and roommate, Franz Passow. Schopenhauer was also captivated by Karoline Jagemann, whom he considered beautiful and who was the mistress of Karl August, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach; he composed his only known love poem for her. Despite his later advocacy for asceticism and his negative perspectives on sexuality, Schopenhauer occasionally engaged in sexual affairs, typically with women of lower social status, including servants, actresses, and occasionally prostitutes. In a letter to his friend Anthime, he asserted that such affairs persisted into his mature age and acknowledged fathering two out-of-wedlock daughters (born in 1819 and 1836), both of whom died in infancy. In their youthful correspondence, Arthur and Anthime exhibited a degree of boastfulness and competitiveness regarding their sexual exploits; however, Schopenhauer appeared cognizant that women generally did not find him particularly charming or physically attractive, and his desires frequently remained unfulfilled.

In 1809, he departed Weimar to enroll as a student at the University of Göttingen. Although no documented reasons explain Schopenhauer's selection of Göttingen over the then more renowned University of Jena, Göttingen was recognized for its modern, scientifically oriented curriculum and reduced emphasis on theology. Law or medicine represented typical career paths for young men of Schopenhauer's social standing who required both a profession and income; he opted for medicine, driven by his scientific interests. His notable professors included Bernhard Friedrich Thibaut, Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren, Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, Friedrich Stromeyer, Heinrich Adolf Schrader, Johann Tobias Mayer, and Konrad Johann Martin Langenbeck. He pursued studies in metaphysics, psychology, and logic under Gottlob Ernst Schulze, the author of Aenesidemus, who profoundly influenced him and recommended focusing on Plato and Immanuel Kant. Around 1810–11, he resolved to transition from medicine to philosophy and subsequently left Göttingen, as the university lacked a robust philosophy program; apart from Schulze, its sole other philosophy professor was Friedrich Bouterwek, whom Schopenhauer found disagreeable. He expressed no regret regarding his medical and scientific studies, asserting their necessity for a philosopher, and even in Berlin, he attended more science lectures than philosophy ones. During his time at Göttingen, he dedicated substantial effort to his studies while also maintaining his flute playing and social engagements. His circle of friends included Friedrich Gotthilf Osann, Karl Witte, Christian Charles Josias von Bunsen, and William Backhouse Astor Sr.

Schopenhauer enrolled at the recently established University of Berlin for the winter semester of 1811–12. Concurrently, his mother initiated her literary career, publishing her debut work in 1810, a critically acclaimed biography of her friend Karl Ludwig Fernow. Arthur attended lectures delivered by the notable post-Kantian philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte, but swiftly identified numerous epistemological disagreements and found Fichte's presentations tedious and obscure. Subsequently, he referred to Fichte exclusively in critical, pejorative terms, perceiving Fichte's philosophy as an inferior rendition of Kant's and deeming it valuable solely for its inadvertent exposure of Kantianism's weaknesses through flawed arguments. He also participated in lectures by the renowned Protestant theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher, developing an swift aversion to his teachings. Schopenhauer's annotations and observations on Schleiermacher's lectures indicate a growing critique of religious doctrine and a progression towards atheistic views. His learning was primarily self-directed, encompassing the works of Plato, Kant, Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, Jakob Friedrich Fries, Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, Francis Bacon, John Locke, and extensive contemporary scientific literature. He enrolled in philological courses taught by August Böckh and Friedrich August Wolf, and pursued his naturalistic inclinations through courses led by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, Paul Erman, Johann Elert Bode, Ernst Gottfried Fischer, Johann Horkel, Friedrich Christian Rosenthal, and Hinrich Lichtenstein, the latter being a friend encountered at one of his mother's gatherings in Weimar.

Early work

In 1813, Schopenhauer hastily departed Berlin, apprehensive of a potential city attack and the prospect of conscription into military service, as Prussia had recently entered the conflict against France. He briefly returned to Weimar but departed within a month, repulsed by his mother's cohabitation with her alleged lover, Georg Friedrich Konrad Ludwig Müller von Gerstenbergk, a civil servant twelve years her junior; Schopenhauer viewed this relationship as an affront to his father's memory. He subsequently resided in Rudolstadt for a period, anticipating that the small town would remain unaffected by military movements. During this time, he engaged in solitary activities, including hiking in the mountains and the Thuringian Forest, while composing his dissertation, On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason.

Schopenhauer finalized his dissertation concurrently with the French army's defeat at the Battle of Leipzig. The influx of soldiers into the town caused him irritation, prompting him to accept his mother's invitation to She attempted to assure him that her relationship with Gerstenbergk was platonic and that she had no matrimonial intentions. Nevertheless, Schopenhauer maintained his suspicion and frequently clashed with Gerstenbergk, whom he regarded as untalented, pretentious, and nationalistic. His mother had recently published her second book, Reminiscences of a Journey in the Years 1803, 1804, and 1805, a popular account of their family's European tour. She deemed his dissertation incomprehensible and expressed skepticism regarding its commercial viability. In a moment of anger, Arthur retorted that his work would be read long after her "rubbish" was entirely forgotten. Despite perceiving her novels as being of questionable literary merit, the Brockhaus publishing firm highly valued her due to her consistent sales success. Hans Brockhaus subsequently asserted that his predecessors "discerned no intrinsic value in this manuscript, but sought to appease one of our top-selling authors by publishing her son's work. We progressively published more of her son Arthur's work, and today, while Johanna is largely forgotten, her son's works remain in steady demand and enhance Brockhaus' reputation." He maintained prominent portraits of both individuals in his Leipzig office, intended for the instruction of his new editors.

Contrary to his mother's prediction, Schopenhauer's dissertation impressed Goethe, to whom it was presented as a gift. While Goethe likely disagreed with Schopenhauer's philosophical stances, he was nevertheless impressed by the young philosopher's intellect and comprehensive scientific background. The subsequent meetings and correspondence between them constituted a significant honor for the young philosopher, who at last received recognition from his intellectual mentor. Their discussions primarily centered on Goethe's recently published, though somewhat coolly received, work concerning color theory. Schopenhauer soon commenced writing his own treatise on the topic, On Vision and Colors, which diverged significantly from his mentor's views in numerous aspects. Despite their continued politeness, their escalating theoretical disagreements—particularly Schopenhauer's pronounced self-confidence and impolitic criticisms—prompted Goethe to withdraw, leading to a reduction in their correspondence after 1816. Schopenhauer subsequently acknowledged the profound hurt caused by this rejection; however, he continued to commend Goethe and regarded his color theory as an excellent precursor to his own.

During his time in Weimar, another significant experience was his acquaintance with Friedrich Majer—a historian of religion, orientalist, and disciple of Johann Gottfried Herder—who introduced him to Eastern philosophy. Schopenhauer was immediately captivated by the Upanishads, which he described as "the production of the highest human wisdom" and believed to contain superhuman concepts, and by the teachings of the Buddha, placing both on an intellectual par with Plato and Kant. His studies progressed through the reading of the Bhagavad Gita, the amateur German journal Asiatisches Magazin, and Asiatick Researches published by the Asiatic Society. Schopenhauer harbored profound respect for Indian philosophy and held a deep affection for Hindu texts. While he never revered a specific Buddhist text, he considered Buddhism to be the most distinguished religion. His engagement with Hindu and Buddhist texts was limited by the scarcity of appropriate literature, with his Buddhist studies primarily confined to Theravada Buddhism. He further asserted that he developed the majority of his philosophical concepts independently, only subsequently recognizing their congruence with Buddhist thought.

Schopenhauer consulted the Latin translation and lauded the Upanishads in his principal work, The World as Will and Representation (1819), and again in his Parerga and Paralipomena (1851), offering the following commentary:

In the whole world there is no study so beneficial and so elevating as that of the Upanishads. It has been the solace of my life, it will be the solace of my death.

With his relationship with his mother deteriorating further, he departed Weimar in May 1814 and relocated to Dresden. He continued his philosophical pursuits, engaged with the cultural life, socialized among intellectuals, and pursued romantic liaisons. His circle of acquaintances in Dresden included Johann Gottlob von Quandt, Friedrich Laun, Karl Christian Friedrich Krause, and Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl, a young painter who created a romanticized portrait of Schopenhauer, enhancing some of his less appealing physical attributes. His critiques of local artists occasionally incited public disputes when he encountered them in public settings. During his residence in Dresden, Schopenhauer's primary endeavor was the composition of his seminal philosophical work, The World as Will and Representation, which he commenced in 1814 and completed in 1818. He received a recommendation to the publisher Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus from Baron Ferdinand von Biedenfeld, an acquaintance of his mother. Despite Brockhaus accepting his manuscript, Schopenhauer created an unfavorable impression due to his contentious and fastidious demeanor, compounded by the very limited sales of the book following its publication in December 1818.

In September 1818, Schopenhauer departed Dresden for a year-long sojourn in Italy, a journey coinciding with the publication of his book and serving as an escape from a scandalous affair with a maid that resulted in an unplanned pregnancy. His travels included visits to Venice, Bologna, Florence, Naples, and Milan, undertaken either solitarily or in the company of predominantly English tourists he encountered. During the winter, he resided in Rome, where he unexpectedly reconnected with Karl Witte and frequently engaged in disputes with German tourists at the Caffè Greco, including Johann Friedrich Böhmer, who noted Schopenhauer's offensive comments and disagreeable demeanor. Schopenhauer immersed himself in art, architecture, and ancient ruins, attended theatrical performances and operas, and persisted in his philosophical reflections and romantic liaisons. Reportedly, one of his romantic relationships intensified, leading him to briefly consider marrying a wealthy Italian noblewoman; however, despite his repeated allusions to this, specific details remain unknown, suggesting potential exaggeration on Schopenhauer's part. He maintained consistent correspondence with his sister Adele, fostering a closer bond as her relationships with Johanna and Gerstenbergk simultaneously worsened. Adele apprised him of their financial difficulties, stemming from the impending bankruptcy of the A. L. Muhl banking house in Danzig, where her mother had invested all their savings and Arthur a third of his own. Arthur proposed sharing his assets, but his mother declined, becoming further incensed by his disparaging remarks. While the women recovered only thirty percent of their investments, Arthur, leveraging his business acumen, adopted a skeptical and assertive approach with the banker, ultimately recovering his entire share. This financial incident further strained the relationships among all three members of the Schopenhauer family.

Due to the issues with Muhl, he curtailed his Italian Concerned by the financial instability and the limited reception of his book, Schopenhauer resolved to pursue an academic career, viewing it as a source of income and a platform to disseminate his philosophical ideas. He reached out to contacts at universities in Heidelberg, Göttingen, and Berlin, ultimately finding Berlin the most appealing option. Schopenhauer deliberately scheduled his lectures to clash with those of the renowned philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, whom he disparagingly characterized as a "clumsy charlatan." He was particularly dismayed by Hegel's perceived deficiency in the natural sciences, attempting to provoke a debate on the subject during his inaugural lecture in March 1820. Concurrently, Hegel was under political scrutiny, a period when numerous progressive academics were dismissed in the wake of the Carlsbad Decrees; in contrast, Schopenhauer prudently stated in his application that he held no political interests. Notwithstanding their ideological disparities and Schopenhauer's presumptuous demand to schedule lectures concurrently with his own, Hegel nevertheless voted in favor of his university appointment. With only five students attending his lectures, Schopenhauer subsequently abandoned his academic career. His later essay, "On University Philosophy," articulated his profound dissatisfaction with the intellectual pursuits within academic institutions.

Later life

Following his brief academic endeavor, Schopenhauer resumed extensive travels, visiting cities such as Leipzig, Nuremberg, Stuttgart, Schaffhausen, Vevey, and Milan, and spending eight months in Florence. Prior to embarking on a three-year journey, Schopenhauer was involved in an altercation with his Berlin neighbor, Caroline Louise Marquet, a 47-year-old seamstress. The specifics of the August 1821 incident remain undisclosed. Schopenhauer asserted that he merely pushed her from his doorway after she impolitely refused to depart, suggesting she intentionally fell to facilitate a lawsuit. Marquet, conversely, alleged that he assaulted her with such force that she suffered paralysis on her right side, rendering her incapable of employment. She promptly initiated legal proceedings, and the case concluded in May 1827, with the court finding Schopenhauer liable and mandating an annual pension payment to her until her demise in 1842.

Schopenhauer found pleasure in Italy, dedicating time to art studies and engaging socially with Italian and English aristocracy. This marked his final Subsequently, he moved to Munich, residing there for a year primarily to recover from diverse health issues, some potentially attributable to venereal diseases, as indicated by his doctor's treatment regimen which suggested syphilis. He approached publishers with offers to translate Hume into German and Kant into English, but these proposals were rejected. Upon returning to Berlin, he commenced studying Spanish to access his preferred authors in their original tongue. Among these authors were Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Lope de Vega, Miguel de Cervantes, and notably, Baltasar Gracián. His endeavors to publish his translations of their writings proved unsuccessful. Several subsequent attempts to re-establish his lectures, once more scheduled concurrently with Hegel's, also failed, as did his inquiries regarding potential relocation to other academic institutions.

During his residency in Berlin, Schopenhauer periodically expressed an interest in marriage and establishing a family. He briefly pursued a relationship with 17-year-old Flora Weiss, who was 22 years his junior, though this courtship proved unsuccessful. His contemporaneous unpublished works reveal a strong critique of monogamy; however, he did not advocate for polygyny, instead contemplating a polyamorous arrangement he termed "tetragamy." Schopenhauer maintained an intermittent relationship with Caroline Richter, a dancer who also adopted the surname Medon from a former partner. Their initial encounter occurred when he was 33 and she was 19, during her employment at the Berlin Opera. Richter had previously had multiple partners and an illegitimate son; she later bore another son fathered by an unnamed foreign diplomat. A subsequent pregnancy resulted in a stillbirth. In 1831, as Schopenhauer prepared to depart Berlin to avoid a cholera epidemic, he offered to take Richter with him, contingent upon her leaving her young son. She declined, and he traveled alone. His will later bequeathed her a substantial sum, with the explicit stipulation that none of it be allocated for her second son.

Schopenhauer asserted that during his final year in Berlin, he experienced a prophetic dream compelling him to leave the city. Upon his arrival in Frankfurt, he reportedly encountered another supernatural event: an apparition of his deceased father and his still-living mother. This encounter prompted him to dedicate time to investigating paranormal phenomena and magic. While highly critical of existing studies, which he deemed largely ignorant or fraudulent, he nonetheless believed in authentic instances of such phenomena, endeavoring to explain them through his metaphysics as manifestations of the will.

Following his relocation to Frankfurt, Schopenhauer endured a period of depression and deteriorating health. He re-established communication with his mother, who appeared apprehensive that he might follow his father's path and commit suicide. At this time, Johanna and Adele were living in very modest circumstances. Johanna's literary endeavors yielded little income, and her public recognition was diminishing. Their exchanges remained formal, and Arthur appeared unaffected by her death in 1838. Conversely, his relationship with his sister deepened, and they maintained correspondence until her passing in 1849.

In July 1832, Schopenhauer departed Frankfurt for Mannheim, but returned in July 1833, residing there for the remainder of his life, apart from brief excursions. His solitary existence was shared only with a series of pet poodles, successively named Atman and Butz. In 1836, he published On the Will in Nature. In 1838, he submitted his essay "On the Freedom of the Will" to a competition held by the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences, winning the prize in 1839. He subsequently submitted "On the Basis of Morality" to the Royal Danish Society of Sciences in 1839; however, despite being the sole contestant, he did not secure the 1840 prize. The Society expressed dismay at the offensive portrayal of several distinguished contemporary philosophers within the essay, further asserting that it deviated from the specified topic and presented inadequate arguments. Schopenhauer, who had been highly confident of victory, reacted with fury to this rejection. He subsequently published both essays under the title The Two Basic Problems of Ethics. The first edition, released in September 1840 but bearing an 1841 publication date, similarly failed to garner significant attention for his philosophical work. In the 1860 preface to the second edition, he continued to direct vitriolic criticism towards the Royal Danish Society. Two years thereafter, following negotiations, he persuaded his publisher, Brockhaus, to issue the second, updated edition of The World as Will and Representation. This work, too, was largely overlooked, and the limited reviews it received were either mixed or negative.

Schopenhauer started to gain adherents, primarily from outside academic circles, among practical professionals—including several lawyers—who engaged in private philosophical study. He humorously dubbed these followers his "evangelists" and "apostles." Julius Frauenstädt emerged as one of his most active early proponents, authoring numerous articles that promoted Schopenhauer's philosophy. Frauenstädt was also crucial in securing an alternative publisher after Brockhaus refused to print Parerga and Paralipomena, anticipating another commercial failure. Although Schopenhauer later ceased correspondence with Frauenstädt, alleging insufficient adherence to his ideas, Frauenstädt persisted in promoting Schopenhauer's work. Their communication resumed in 1859, at which point Schopenhauer designated Frauenstädt as the heir to his literary estate. Frauenstädt subsequently undertook the editorship of Schopenhauer's first collected works.

In 1848, Schopenhauer observed a violent uprising in Frankfurt following the assassinations of General Hans Adolf Erdmann von Auerswald and Prince Felix Lichnowsky. This event prompted concerns for his personal safety and possessions. Such anxieties had manifested earlier in his life, leading him to keep a sword and loaded pistols by his bed for self-defense against potential intruders. He extended a cordial welcome to Austrian soldiers who sought to fire upon revolutionaries from his window, and upon their departure, he provided an officer with his opera glasses to aid in monitoring the insurgents. Schopenhauer emerged from the rebellion unscathed and subsequently commended Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz, for his role in reestablishing order. He even amended his will, bequeathing a significant portion of his estate to a Prussian fund dedicated to assisting soldiers who sustained injuries during the 1848 rebellion or supporting the families of those who perished in combat. In contrast to the Young Hegelians' advocacy for societal change and progress, Schopenhauer posited that human existence is inherently characterized by misery, arguing that even a utopian society would inevitably lead to conflict stemming from boredom or starvation resulting from overpopulation.

In 1851, Schopenhauer released Parerga and Paralipomena, a collection of essays intended as supplementary material to his principal philosophical treatise. This publication marked his initial widely successful and extensively read work, a triumph partly attributable to the laudatory reviews penned by his adherents. Ironically, the most popular essays were those that diverged from the fundamental philosophical tenets of his system. While many academic philosophers recognized him as a distinguished stylist and cultural critic, they often dismissed his philosophical contributions. Early critics frequently highlighted parallels between his concepts and those of Fichte and Schelling, or asserted the presence of numerous contradictions within his philosophical framework. Both lines of criticism provoked Schopenhauer's indignation. Although he grew less inclined towards intellectual disputes, he encouraged his disciples to engage in them. His private notes and correspondence reveal an acknowledgment of certain criticisms concerning contradictions, inconsistencies, and vagueness within his philosophy; however, he maintained that he prioritized neither harmony nor strict agreement among his propositions, suggesting that some of his ideas were intended metaphorically rather than literally.

Concurrently, academic philosophers began to acknowledge his contributions. In 1856, the University of Leipzig organized an essay competition focused on Schopenhauer's philosophy, which Rudolf Seydel won with a highly critical submission. Jules Lunteschütz, a friend of Schopenhauer, created the first of four portraits of him—a depiction Schopenhauer himself did not particularly favor—which was subsequently acquired by Carl Ferdinand Wiesike, a prosperous landowner who constructed a dedicated structure for its exhibition. Schopenhauer appeared both flattered and amused by this development, humorously referring to the structure as his "first chapel". As his renown grew, reproductions of his portraits and photographs became commercially available, and admirers frequented the locations where he had resided and composed his works. Visitors to Frankfurt's Englischer Hof sought to observe him during his meals. He received gifts and autograph requests from his admirers. Despite this burgeoning recognition, he lamented a persistent sense of isolation, attributing it to his unsociable disposition and the loss of many close friends to old age.

Schopenhauer maintained good health into his advanced years, a condition he ascribed to consistent daily walks, regardless of weather, and adequate sleep. He possessed a robust appetite and retained the ability to read without corrective lenses; however, his hearing had deteriorated since his youth, and he developed rheumatic ailments. He remained intellectually active and lucid, continuing his scholarly pursuits, writing, and correspondence until his demise. The extensive notes he compiled during these years, including observations on aging, were posthumously published as Senilia. In the spring of 1860, his health began to deteriorate, marked by shortness of breath and heart palpitations; by September, he contracted pulmonary inflammation, and despite initial signs of recovery, he remained significantly weakened. Wilhelm Gwinner, his final visitor, reported that Schopenhauer expressed concern over his inability to complete planned additions to Parerga and Paralipomena, yet accepted his impending death with equanimity. He succumbed to pulmonary-respiratory failure on September 21, 1860, while seated on his couch at home. He passed away at the age of 72, and his funeral was officiated by a Lutheran minister.

Philosophy

Theory of perception

In November 1813, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe extended an invitation to Schopenhauer to collaborate on his Theory of Colours. Despite Schopenhauer's view of color theory as a secondary concern, he accepted the invitation, motivated by his profound admiration for Goethe. Nonetheless, these inquiries ultimately guided him to his most significant epistemological breakthrough: the demonstration of causality's a priori nature.

Kant acknowledged that David Hume's skeptical challenge to causality spurred his critical inquiries in Critique of Pure Reason, where he presented a detailed argument for causality's a priori nature. Following Gottlob Ernst Schulze's assertion that Kant had not refuted Humean skepticism, the task of substantiating this crucial point fell to proponents of Kant's philosophical framework.

A key distinction between Kant's and Schopenhauer's approaches lies in Kant's assertion that the empirical content of perception is "given" externally, a notion Schopenhauer frequently criticized. Schopenhauer, conversely, focused on how this empirical content of perception is acquired and how subjective sensations, confined to one's own body, can be understood as objective perceptions of external objects.

When a congenitally blind individual touches a cubic object, the sensations in their hand are uniform across all sides and directions; although the edges exert pressure on a smaller area, the sensations themselves do not inherently convey the concept of a cube. From the perceived resistance, his intellect immediately and intuitively infers a cause, which subsequently manifests as a solid body. By moving his arms to explore the object, while the tactile sensation in his hand persists, he constructs the cubic form within space. Had the inherent representations of causality and space, along with their governing principles, not pre-existed within him, the mental image of a cube could not have arisen from the sequential tactile sensations in his hand.

Consequently, causality is not an empirical concept derived from objective perceptions, as Hume asserted; rather, as Kant argued, objective perception fundamentally relies on a prior understanding of causality.

Through this intellectual process, wherein every effect registered by our sensory organs is understood as having an external cause, the external world is constituted. In the case of vision, identifying the cause is significantly simplified because light propagates in straight lines. We are rarely aware of the intricate process that unifies the dual sensations from both eyes into a single object, inverts retinal impressions, and utilizes the shifts in an object's apparent position relative to more distant elements, facilitated by binocular vision, to discern depth and distance.

Schopenhauer emphasizes the intellectual character of perception, positing that the senses provide the raw data from which the intellect constructs the world as representation. His theory of perception was initially presented in On Vision and Colors, with a comprehensive elaboration appearing in § 21 of later editions of Fourfold Root.

World as representation

Schopenhauer regarded his philosophy as an advancement of Kant's, utilizing the conclusions of Kant's theoretical and epistemological inquiries, particularly transcendental idealism, as foundational for his own work. Kant contended that the empirical world constitutes a mere complex of appearances, whose existence and interrelation are confined to our mental representations. While Schopenhauer did not dispute the empirical existence of the external world, he aligned with Kant in asserting that our knowledge and experience of it are inherently subject-dependent. Specifically for Schopenhauer, the mind actively imposes the spatiotemporal form and causal structure onto our experiences of the external world during the process of perception. Schopenhauer reasserts this principle in the opening statement of his magnum opus: "The world is my representation (Die Welt ist meine Vorstellung)." All that is accessible to cognition, encompassing the entire world, exists solely as an object in relation to a subject—a 'representation' for a subject. Consequently, every constituent of the world is 'subject-dependent'. In the first book of The World as Will and Representation, Schopenhauer examines the world from this perspective, specifically as it pertains to its nature as representation.

Kant previously posited that human perception of reality as spatial and temporal arises not from reality's intrinsic nature, but from the mind's operational framework during object perception. Consequently, the comprehension of objects within space and time constitutes the mind's active contribution to experience. Schopenhauer regarded Kant's most significant contribution as the distinction between phenomena and the noumenal "thing-in-itself," substantiated by the argument that a perceiving mind invariably mediates between observers and all external entities. This implies that Kant's fundamental accomplishment was illustrating that the mind, far from being a passive recipient of reality, actively constructs it with the aid of sensory input. Therefore, Schopenhauer concluded that Kant had established the everyday world of experience, including the entire material realm governed by space and time, as mere "appearance" or "phenomena," fundamentally separate from the "thing-in-itself."

World as will

In the second book of The World as Will and Representation, Schopenhauer investigates the world's nature beyond its phenomenal appearance, focusing on its "in-itself" or "noumenal" aspect, which constitutes its intrinsic essence. Schopenhauer asserts that the fundamental "being-in-itself" of all phenomena is the will (Wille). The empirical world, perceived as representation, exhibits multiplicity and is structured within a spatio-temporal framework. Conversely, the world as a "thing-in-itself" necessarily transcends the subjective categories of space and time. While the world presents itself to human experience as a diverse array of objects—a process Schopenhauer terms the "objectivation" of the will—each component of this multiplicity shares an identical, unconscious essence that relentlessly strives for existence and vitality. Human rationality, according to Schopenhauer, is merely a secondary attribute that fails to fundamentally differentiate humanity from the natural world. He contends that humanity's advanced cognitive faculties ultimately serve the will's objectives—an irrational, aimless, and incessant drive that subjects individuals to a life of suffering devoid of ultimate meaning. This philosophical stance, which posits the will as the fundamental reality underlying the world of representation, is commonly referred to as metaphysical voluntarism.

Schopenhauer believed that comprehending the world as will inevitably gives rise to ethical considerations, which he examines in the fourth book of The World as Will and Representation, as well as in his two award-winning essays on ethics, On the Freedom of the Will and On the Basis of Morality. He contended that no individual human actions are truly free, as they manifest within the phenomenal world and are consequently governed by the principle of sufficient reason; thus, a person's actions are the inevitable outcome of their motives and inherent character. This necessity applies to human actions precisely as it does to all other appearances, precluding any notion of individual volitional freedom. Albert Einstein notably cited Schopenhauer's concept that "a man can do as he will, but not will as he will." Nevertheless, the will as a "thing-in-itself" retains its freedom, existing beyond the domain of representation and therefore unconstrained by the forms of necessity inherent in the principle of sufficient reason.

Schopenhauer proposed that liberation from human suffering can be achieved by "tranquillizing" the will through a metaphysical realization that exposes individuality as an illusion. A saint or "great soul" intuitively "recognizes the totality, comprehends its essence, and perceives its ceaseless transience, entangled in futile endeavors, internal strife, and incessant suffering." This negation of the will, therefore, arises from the profound understanding that the world "in-itself"—unbound by spatial and temporal forms—is fundamentally unified. Schopenhauer observed that ascetic practices facilitate the will's "self-abolition," leading to a blissful, redemptive "will-less" condition of emptiness, devoid of striving or suffering.

Art and aesthetics

Schopenhauer posited that human volition—encompassing desires and cravings—constitutes the fundamental cause of suffering. Aesthetic contemplation offers a transient means of alleviating this suffering. This process involves a shift from the conventional apprehension of particular entities to the recognition of eternal Platonic Ideas, thereby achieving a state of awareness unburdened by the dictates of the will. During aesthetic contemplation, the perceived object is no longer experienced as distinct from the observer; instead, "it is as if the object alone existed without anyone perceiving it, and one can thus no longer separate the perceiver from the perception, but the two have become one, the entirety of consciousness entirely filled and occupied by a single perceptual image." Consequently, the distinction between subject and object dissolves, allowing the Idea to become paramount.

Through such aesthetic immersion, an individual transcends the suffering inherent in subservience to personal will, transforming into a "pure, will-less, painless, timeless, subject of cognition." This pure, will-less cognitive subject apprehends only Ideas, not discrete entities. This form of cognition disregards the relationships between objects as defined by the Principle of Sufficient Reason (i.e., time, space, causality), instead entailing a complete absorption in the object itself.

Art emerges as the practical manifestation of this transient aesthetic contemplation, striving to represent the world's fundamental essence or pure Ideas. Schopenhauer considered music the most unadulterated art form, as it directly portrays the will without being constrained by the Principle of Sufficient Reason or manifesting as an individual object. Daniel Albright notes that "Schopenhauer thought that music was the only art that did not merely copy ideas, but actually embodied the will itself." Schopenhauer regarded music as a timeless, universally understood language capable of inspiring widespread enthusiasm, particularly when featuring a profound melody.

Mathematics

Schopenhauer's realist perspective on mathematics is underscored by his critique of contemporary efforts to establish the parallel postulate within Euclidean geometry. Penning his thoughts shortly before hyperbolic geometry proved the axiom's logical independence—and well in advance of general relativity demonstrating its non-essential relation to physical space—Schopenhauer faulted mathematicians for employing indirect conceptualizations to validate what he considered self-evident through intuitive perception.

The Euclidean method of demonstration has brought forth from its own womb its most striking parody and caricature in the famous controversy over the theory of parallels, and in the attempts, repeated every year, to prove the eleventh axiom (also known as the fifth postulate). The axiom asserts, and that indeed through the indirect criterion of a third intersecting line, that two lines inclined to each other (for this is the precise meaning of "less than two right angles"), if produced far enough, must meet. Now this truth is supposed to be too complicated to pass as self-evident, and therefore needs a proof; but no such proof can be produced, just because there is nothing more immediate.

Across his collected works, Schopenhauer consistently critiqued the practice of deriving philosophical and mathematical principles solely from abstract concepts, advocating instead for their grounding in intuitive perceptions.

In fact, it seems to me that the logical method is in this way reduced to an absurdity. But it is precisely through the controversies over this, together with the futile attempts to demonstrate the directly certain as merely indirectly certain, that the independence and clearness of intuitive evidence appear in contrast with the uselessness and difficulty of logical proof, a contrast as instructive as it is amusing. The direct certainty will not be admitted here, just because it is no merely logical certainty following from the concept, and thus resting solely on the relation of predicate to subject, according to the principle of contradiction. But that eleventh axiom regarding parallel lines is a synthetic proposition a priori, and as such has the guarantee of pure, not empirical, perception; this perception is just as immediate and certain as is the principle of contradiction itself, from which all proofs originally derive their certainty. At bottom this holds good of every geometrical theorem ...

While Schopenhauer found no rationale for attempting to prove Euclid's parallel postulate, he recognized merit in scrutinizing a different Euclidean axiom.

It surprises me that the eighth axiom, "Figures that coincide with one another are equal to one another", is not rather attacked. For "coinciding with one another" is either a mere tautology, or something quite empirical, belonging not to pure intuition or perception, but to external sensuous experience. Thus it presupposes mobility of the figures, but matter alone is movable in space. Consequently, this reference to coincidence with one another forsakes pure space, the sole element of geometry, in order to pass over to the material and empirical.

This perspective aligns with Kant's philosophical framework.

Ethics

Schopenhauer contended that the primary objective of ethics is not to dictate prescriptive moral actions but rather to conduct an inquiry into existing moral behaviors. Consequently, he maintained that philosophy inherently operates as a theoretical discipline, tasked with elucidating observed phenomena.

Within Kant's framework of transcendental idealism, space and time are conceptualized as fundamental forms of human sensibility, through which phenomena manifest in a state of multiplicity. Conversely, ultimate reality, or the thing-in-itself, is posited as being devoid of multiplicity, implying not merely singularity but an existence beyond the very potential for division. Thus, even seemingly distinct individuals are, in their intrinsic nature, fundamentally undifferentiated.

All phenomenal appearances are entirely governed by the principle of sufficient reason. An egoistic individual, whose objectives are solely centered on personal interests, must navigate empirical laws to the best of their ability.

Ethical considerations become particularly pertinent when examining individuals capable of acting contrary to their own self-interest. For instance, if an individual experiences distress upon witnessing the poverty of others and subsequently allocates a substantial portion of their income to address their necessities rather than pursuing personal gratification, this behavior can be most simply characterized as demonstrating a diminished perceived distinction between the self and others.

From the perspective of how phenomena appear, an egoist posits a fundamental separation between individuals, whereas an altruist perceives the suffering of others as intrinsically linked to their own. Similarly, a compassionate individual refrains from harming animals, despite their apparent distinction from the self.

Compassion serves as the primary motivator for altruistic behavior. For such an individual, the suffering of others is not an abstract concern eliciting indifference, but rather a deeply felt connection to all sentient beings. Consequently, compassion is posited as the foundational principle of morality.

Eternal justice

Schopenhauer designates the principle responsible for the manifestation of multiplicity as the principium individuationis. Observation of the natural world reveals a relentless struggle for existence. Individual expressions of the will can only sustain themselves by preying upon others; the will, being the sole existent entity, is compelled to consume itself to experience gratification. This inherent characteristic of the will is immutable and unavoidable.

In contrast to temporal or human justice, which necessitates a temporal interval for the recompense of wrongdoing and is administered by the state through retribution and punishment, eternal justice governs the world rather than the state. It operates independently of human institutions, is impervious to chance and deceit, and remains unwavering, infallible, fixed, and certain. Eternal justice is not characterized by retribution, as the latter inherently demands a temporal dimension. It permits no delays or reprieves. Instead, punishment is inextricably linked to the transgression, reaching a point where "the two become one. ... Tormenter and tormented are one. The [Tormenter] errs in that he believes he is not a partaker in the suffering; the [tormented], in that he believes he is not a partaker in the guilt."

Suffering is presented as the moral consequence of human attachment to pleasure. Schopenhauer considered this principle to be articulated through the Christian doctrine of original sin and, in Eastern spiritual traditions, by the concept of rebirth.

Quietism

An individual who penetrates the illusion of the principium individuationis and apprehends suffering universally as their own will perceive suffering ubiquitously. Consequently, rather than striving for the happiness of their individual manifestation, they will develop an aversion to life itself, recognizing its inherent and inseparable connection with suffering. For such a person, the notion of a happy individual existence within a world permeated by suffering is likened to a beggar's nocturnal dream of kingship.

Individuals who attain this intuitive understanding are unable to affirm life; instead, they manifest asceticism and quietism. This implies a detachment from conventional motives, a disregard for personal welfare, and a passive acceptance of harm inflicted by others. They embrace poverty and demonstrate indifference towards both the pursuit and avoidance of death. Schopenhauer defined asceticism as the explicit denial of the will to live.

Ascetics interrupt the perpetual human pursuit of satisfaction, rather than persisting in this struggle. The specific religious doctrines, whether Christian or Dharmic, to which these ascetics subscribe are irrelevant, as their lifestyle stems from intuitive understanding.

Both Christian mystics and proponents of Vedanta philosophy concur that external rituals and religious practices become unnecessary for individuals who have achieved spiritual perfection. This extensive consensus across diverse eras and cultures provides empirical evidence that this perspective is not, as often claimed by naive optimism, a mere mental aberration or eccentricity, but rather a fundamental aspect of human nature, infrequently observed due to its profound significance.

Antinatalism

A scholarly debate exists regarding whether Schopenhauer can be identified as an early proponent of antinatalism, which posits a moral obligation to refrain from procreation. Certain academics explicitly connect Schopenhauer's philosophy with antinatalism, including its contemporary advocate, David Benatar. Schopenhauer articulated several statements that could classify him as an antinatalist, asserting that individuals would decline existence with a "no thank you very much," describing "life as a business that does not cover its costs," and posing a rhetorical question implying that rational individuals would abstain from having children:

Consider a scenario where procreation was devoid of biological necessity or sexual gratification, and instead solely a product of dispassionate, rational deliberation; would humanity persist? Conversely, would not universal compassion for future generations lead individuals to spare them the burden of existence, or at minimum, refuse to deliberately inflict it upon them?

Conversely, an argument can be made that Schopenhauer repudiates the antinatalist stance. From his philosophical perspective, individual human beings are perceived as mere phenomena, whose existence does not commence with birth. Likewise, death does not result in their absolute obliteration. Therefore, at a foundational metaphysical stratum, non-existence is deemed impossible for humanity.

Reconciling these divergent viewpoints involves emphasizing the significance of existing as a distinct individual, experiencing a life replete with suffering, rather than concentrating on the metaphysical essence. Nevertheless, this approach does not resolve the issue, given Schopenhauer's explicit rejection of any absolute moral imperatives, which are fundamental to the antinatalist assertion of a duty to refrain from procreation.

Moreover, Schopenhauer elucidates that the nascent, prospective child inherently endeavors to manifest within the phenomenal world. From the parental viewpoint, the ethical evaluation of an action is contingent upon the nature of the volition; if the underlying motive is neither malevolent nor egoistic, the action cannot be deemed morally reprehensible.

Crucially, precluding an individual's existence as a person obstructs their capacity to negate their fundamental essence, which is the will. The will can only be overcome by an individual through the profound comprehension of the world's underlying essence. This process constitutes the sole genuine and enduring redemption. Consequently, Schopenhauer dismisses suicide as a viable resolution to the human condition.

Thus, Schopenhauer articulates arguments supporting two contradictory positions, each possessing validity from a distinct vantage point. From an individual's standpoint, non-existence would be preferable to avoid suffering. However, from a more profound philosophical perspective, allowing individuals to exist is beneficial, enabling them to comprehend the world's essential truth and achieve redemption by tempering the will to life. Therefore, while he aligns with the foundational premise of antinatalists, he diverges from their ultimate conclusion.

Psychology

Historically, philosophers have largely overlooked the imperative nature of sexuality; however, Schopenhauer directly confronted sex and its associated concepts:

...it is more surprising that a phenomenon [sex] so profoundly influential in human existence has been almost entirely neglected by philosophers until now, remaining as an unexamined and undeveloped subject.

Schopenhauer identified an intrinsic human force that he believed consistently superseded reason: the will to live (Wille zum Leben). This was defined as an innate impulse in both humans and all other organisms to persist in existence, a power that subtly compels reproduction.

Schopenhauer rejected the notion of love as either trivial or coincidental, instead interpreting it as an extraordinarily potent, latent force within the human psyche, essential for ensuring the perpetuation and quality of the human species:

The ultimate aim of all love affairs ... is more important than all other aims in man's life; and therefore it is quite worthy of the profound seriousness with which everyone pursues it. What is decided by it is nothing less than the composition of the next generation ...

Schopenhauer's ideas on sexuality are frequently cited as anticipating the theory of evolution. This assertion was favorably received by Darwin, who incorporated a quotation from Schopenhauer into his work, Descent of Man. Similar observations have been made regarding Freud's theories of the libido and the unconscious, as well as the broader field of evolutionary psychology.

Political and social thought

Politics

Schopenhauer's political views mirrored his ethical system, which he thoroughly explicated in his work, Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik, comprising the essays On the Freedom of the Will and On the Basis of Morality.

Within his sporadic political commentaries found in Parerga and Paralipomena and Manuscript Remains, Schopenhauer identified as an advocate for limited government. He concurred with Thomas Hobbes regarding the state's essential role and its actions in restraining humanity's inherent destructive inclinations. Furthermore, he championed the autonomy of the legislative, judicial, and executive branches of government, and supported the concept of a monarch as an impartial figure capable of administering justice in a pragmatic, rather than a cosmic, sense.

He asserted that monarchy is "natural to man in almost the same way as it is to bees and ants, to cranes in flight, to wandering elephants, to wolves in a pack in search of prey, and to other animals". Schopenhauer further noted that intellect in monarchical systems consistently possesses "much better chances against stupidity, its implacable and ever-present foe, than it has in republics; but this is a great advantage." Conversely, Schopenhauer criticized republicanism, deeming it "as unnatural to man as it is unfavorable to higher intellectual life and thus to the arts and sciences".

Schopenhauer openly admitted his limited engagement with political matters, frequently expressing pride in his minimal attention to "political affairs of [his] day". Throughout a lifetime encompassing multiple revolutions in French and German governance and several continent-altering conflicts, he steadfastly adhered to his principle of "minding not the times but the eternities". He frequently penned critical observations concerning Germany and its populace. A characteristic illustration is his statement: "For a German it is even good to have somewhat lengthy words in his mouth, for he thinks slowly, and they give him time to reflect."

Punishment

Schopenhauer asserted that the State imposes penalties on offenders primarily to deter future transgressions. He explained that the State "beside every possible motive for committing a wrong a more powerful motive for leaving it undone, in the inescapable punishment. Accordingly, the criminal code is as complete a register as possible of counter-motives to all criminal actions that can possibly be imagined ..." He acknowledged that this principle was not his original idea, but had previously been articulated in the works of Plato, Seneca the Younger, Thomas Hobbes, Samuel von Pufendorf, and Paul Johann Anselm Ritter von Feuerbach.

Races and religions

Schopenhauer ascribed civilizational preeminence to the northern "white races," citing their sensitivity and creativity as reasons, with the notable exceptions of the ancient Egyptians and Hindus, whom he considered their equals:

The highest civilization and culture, apart from the ancient Hindus and Egyptians, are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples, the ruling caste or race is fairer in colour than the rest and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the Brahmans, the Incas, and the rulers of the South Sea Islands. All this is due to the fact that necessity is the mother of invention because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to develop all their intellectual powers and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need, want and misery, which in their many forms were brought about by the climate. This they had to do in order to make up for the parsimony of nature and out of it all came their high civilization.

Schopenhauer expressed vehement opposition to slavery. Commenting on the treatment of enslaved individuals in the slave-holding states of the United States, he denounced "those devils in human form, those bigoted, church-going, strict sabbath-observing scoundrels, especially the Anglican parsons among them" for their treatment of "their innocent black brothers who through violence and injustice have fallen into their devil's claws". According to Schopenhauer, the slave-holding states of North America represent a "disgrace to the whole of humanity".

Schopenhauer held significant metaphysical and political anti-Judaic views. He contended that Christianity represented a rebellion against what he characterized as the materialistic foundations of Judaism. He believed Christianity embodied an Indian-influenced ethical framework, aligning with the Aryan-Vedic concept of spiritual self-mastery. This perspective, in his view, contrasted sharply with what he perceived as the uninformed pursuit of earthly utopianism and the superficiality inherent in a worldly "Jewish" ethos:

[Judaism] is, therefore, the crudest and poorest of all religions and consists merely in an absurd and revolting theism. It amounts to this that the κύριος ['Lord'], who has created the world, desires to be worshipped and adored; and so above all he is jealous, is envious of his colleagues, of all the other gods; if sacrifices are made to them he is furious and his Jews have a bad time ... It is most deplorable that this religion has become the basis of the prevailing religion of Europe; for it is a religion without any metaphysical tendency. While all other religions endeavor to explain to the people by symbols the metaphysical significance of life, the religion of the Jews is entirely immanent and furnishes nothing but a mere war-cry in the struggle with other nations.

Women

In his 1851 essay "On Women," Schopenhauer articulated his opposition to what he termed the "Teutonico-Christian stupidity" of "reflexive, unexamined reverence for the female (abgeschmackten Weiberveneration)." He stated: "Women are directly fitted for acting as the nurses and teachers of our early childhood by the fact that they are themselves childish, frivolous and short-sighted; in a word, they are big children all their life long—a kind of intermediate stage between the child and the full-grown man." He further opined that women lacked artistic faculties and a sense of justice, and he voiced his opposition to monogamy. He asserted that "woman is by nature meant to obey." Despite these criticisms, the essay included some commendations, noting that "women are decidedly more sober in their judgment than [men] are" and are more sympathetic to the suffering of others.

Schopenhauer's extensive writings profoundly influenced numerous thinkers, ranging from Friedrich Nietzsche to nineteenth-century feminists, and regrettably continue to foster sexist perspectives in contemporary discourse. His biological analysis concerning the distinctions between sexes and their respective roles in the struggle for survival and reproduction foreshadowed certain propositions later advanced by sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists.

In 1859, when the elderly Schopenhauer posed for a sculpture portrait by Prussian sculptor Elisabet Ney, he was notably impressed by the young woman's intellect, independence, and artistic prowess. Following his interactions with Ney, he conveyed to Richard Wagner's acquaintance, Malwida von Meysenbug: "I have not yet spoken my last word about women. I believe that if a woman succeeds in withdrawing from the mass, or rather raising herself above the mass, she grows ceaselessly and more than a man."

Pederasty

In the third, expanded edition of The World as Will and Representation (1859), Schopenhauer incorporated an appendix into his chapter on the Metaphysics of Sexual Love. He posited that pederasty offered the advantage of preventing ill-conceived offspring. Regarding this, he declared that "the vice we are considering appears to work directly against the aims and ends of nature, and that in a matter that is all important and of the greatest concern to her it must in fact serve these very aims, although only indirectly, as a means for preventing greater evils." Schopenhauer concluded the appendix by stating that "by expounding these paradoxical ideas, I wanted to grant to the professors of philosophy a small favour. I have done so by giving them the opportunity of slandering me by saying that I defend and commend pederasty."

Heredity and eugenics

Schopenhauer considered personality and intellectual capacity to be inherited traits. To support this hereditarian perspective, he cited Horace's maxim, "From the brave and good are the brave descended" (Odes, iv, 4, 29), and Shakespeare's verse from Cymbeline, "Cowards father cowards, and base things sire base" (IV, 2). Schopenhauer posited a mechanistic view where intellect was inherited maternally and personal character paternally. This conviction regarding trait heritability significantly shaped Schopenhauer's understanding of love, elevating its importance. He asserted that "the final aim of all love intrigues, be they comic or tragic, is really of more importance than all other ends in human life. What it all turns upon is nothing less than the composition of the next generation. ... It is not the weal or woe of any one individual, but that of the human race to come, which is here at stake." This emphasis on the species-level significance of mate selection was consistent with his perspectives on eugenics, or selective breeding. Schopenhauer articulated this as follows:

With our knowledge of the complete unalterability both of character and of mental faculties, we are led to the view that a real and thorough improvement of the human race might be reached not so much from outside as from within, not so much by theory and instruction as rather by the path of generation. Plato had something of the kind in mind when, in the fifth book of his Republic, he explained his plan for increasing and improving his warrior caste. If we could castrate all scoundrels and stick all stupid geese in a convent, and give men of noble character a whole harem, and procure men, and indeed thorough men, for all girls of intellect and understanding, then a generation would soon arise which would produce a better age than that of Pericles.

Schopenhauer further articulated his eugenic thesis, stating: "If you want Utopian plans, I would say: the only solution to the problem is the despotism of the wise and noble members of a genuine aristocracy, a genuine nobility, achieved by mating the most magnanimous men with the cleverest and most gifted women. This proposal constitutes my Utopia and my Platonic Republic." Scholars, including Keith Ansell-Pearson, have proposed that Schopenhauer's anti-egalitarian views and advocacy for eugenics significantly impacted the neo-aristocratic philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, who initially regarded Schopenhauer as a mentor.

Animal rights

Stemming from his monistic philosophy, Schopenhauer expressed profound concern for animal welfare and rights. In his view, all individual animals, including humans, represented phenomenal manifestations of a singular, underlying Will. He defined "will" as encompassing force, power, impulse, energy, and desire, considering it the most approximate term to denote both the essence of external phenomena and direct inner experience. Consequently, as all living beings possess this will, humans and animals share a fundamental identity, allowing for mutual recognition. Therefore, he contended that an ethical individual would demonstrate compassion for animals, recognizing them as fellow sufferers.

Compassion for animals is intimately associated with goodness of character, and it may be confidently asserted that he who is cruel to living creatures cannot be a good man.

Nothing leads more definitely to a recognition of the identity of the essential nature in animal and human phenomena than a study of zoology and anatomy.