Mannerism denotes an artistic style prevalent in European art, originating in Italy during the latter phase of the High Renaissance, approximately 1520. Its influence expanded by 1530 and persisted until the close of the 16th century in Italy, at which point the Baroque style largely superseded it. However, Northern Mannerism extended its presence into the early 17th century.
Mannerism is a style in European art that emerged in the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520, spreading by about 1530 and lasting until about the end of the 16th century in Italy, when the Baroque style largely replaced it. Northern Mannerism continued into the early 17th century.
This artistic movement encompasses diverse methodologies, both influenced by and a reaction against the harmonious principles characteristic of High Renaissance masters like Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Vasari, and early Michelangelo. While High Renaissance art prioritizes proportion, equilibrium, and idealized beauty, Mannerism frequently amplifies these attributes, leading to compositions that are often asymmetrical or possess an unnatural elegance. Distinguished by its artificial rather than naturalistic characteristics, this style favors compositional tension and instability over the balance and clarity evident in preceding Renaissance painting. In the realms of literature and music, Mannerism is recognized for its elaborate stylistic features and intellectual complexity.
The precise definition of Mannerism and its internal developmental stages remain contentious among art historians. For instance, certain academics have extended this designation to specific early modern literary forms, particularly poetry, and musical compositions from the 16th and 17th centuries. Furthermore, the term describes some late Gothic painters active in northern Europe between approximately 1500 and 1530, notably the Antwerp Mannerists, a collective distinct from the Italian movement. Analogously, Mannerism has also been associated with the Silver Age of Latin literature.
Nomenclature
The term "Mannerism" originates from the Italian word maniera, signifying "style" or "manner." Similar to its English counterpart, maniera can denote either a particular stylistic category (e.g., an elegant or a harsh style) or an inherent quality requiring no further specification (e.g., possessing "style"). In the 1568 second edition of his seminal work, Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, Giorgio Vasari employed maniera in three distinct ways: to refer to an artist's working method or approach; to characterize an individual or collective style, such as the phrase maniera greca for the medieval Italo-Byzantine style, or simply Michelangelo's maniera; and to convey a positive assessment of artistic merit. Vasari, himself a Mannerist artist, characterized his contemporary period as "la maniera moderna," or the "modern style." James V. Mirollo elucidates how "Bella maniera" poets endeavored to exceed the virtuosity found in Petrarch's sonnets. This concept of "Bella maniera" implies that artists, drawing inspiration from this principle, sought to emulate and refine the works of their predecessors rather than engaging directly with nature. Fundamentally, "Bella maniera" involved synthesizing superior elements from various sources to create novel artistic expressions.
Defining "Mannerism" as a stylistic classification presents considerable challenges. Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt initially employed the term, which gained prominence through German art historians in the early 20th century. Its purpose was to categorize the ostensibly unclassifiable Italian art of the 16th century—art that diverged from the harmonious and rational methodologies characteristic of the High Renaissance. The "High Renaissance" itself denoted an era marked by harmony, magnificence, and a resurgence of classical antiquity. John Shearman subsequently redefined the term "Mannerist" in 1967, a development that followed the 1965 exhibition of Mannerist paintings curated by Fritz Grossmann at the Manchester City Art Gallery.
Nevertheless, scholarly consensus remains elusive regarding whether Mannerism constitutes a distinct style, a specific movement, or an entire historical period. Some scholars have alternatively designated it as the "Late Renaissance." Despite ongoing controversy, the term continues to be widely applied to characterize European art and culture during the 16th century.
Origin and Development
Towards the conclusion of the High Renaissance, emerging artists encountered a significant artistic dilemma, perceiving that all conceivable achievements had already been realized. No further technical or conceptual challenges appeared to remain unresolved. The profound understanding of anatomy, illumination, physiognomy, and the nuanced portrayal of human emotion through expression and gesture, alongside the innovative application of the human form in figurative compositions and the mastery of subtle tonal gradations, had collectively approached perfection. Consequently, these young artists were compelled to identify new artistic objectives and explore novel methodologies. It was at this juncture that Mannerism began to manifest, with this distinctive style developing between 1510 and 1520, originating either in Florence, Rome, or concurrently in both urban centers.
Origins and Models
This artistic epoch has been characterized as a "natural extension" of the works by Andrea del Sarto, Michelangelo, and Raphael. Michelangelo, in particular, cultivated a profoundly original style early in his career, which garnered immense admiration initially, subsequently becoming a frequent subject of copying and imitation by contemporary artists. Among the qualities most revered by his peers was his terribilità, a profound sense of awe-inspiring grandeur, which later artists endeavored to emulate. Many artists assimilated Michelangelo's impassioned and highly individualized style through the practice of copying his masterworks, a conventional pedagogical method for students of painting and sculpture. His Sistine Chapel ceiling offered numerous exemplars for emulation, notably his depictions of the collected figures often termed ignudi and the Libyan Sibyl, as well as his vestibule to the Laurentian Library, the sculptural figures on his Medici tombs, and preeminently, his Last Judgment. The later works of Michelangelo thus served as a paramount model for Mannerism. Young artists were known to illicitly enter his residence and purloin his drawings. In his seminal work, Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects, Giorgio Vasari documented Michelangelo's assertion: "Those who are followers can never pass by whom they follow."
The Competitive Spirit
A competitive ethos was fostered by patrons who incentivized sponsored artists to highlight virtuosic technical skill and to contend for commissions. This dynamic propelled artists to seek innovative approaches, resulting in dramatically illuminated scenes, elaborate garments and compositions, elongated proportions, highly stylized poses, and a deliberate ambiguity of perspective. For instance, Gonfaloniere Piero Soderini commissioned both Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo to adorn a wall in the Hall of Five Hundred in Florence. These two artists were positioned to paint side-by-side, competing directly, thereby intensifying the impetus for maximal innovation.
Early Mannerism
The initial Mannerists in Florence, particularly Andrea del Sarto's pupils such as Jacopo da Pontormo and Rosso Fiorentino, are distinguished by their use of elongated forms, precariously balanced poses, a compressed perspective, illogical settings, and theatrical illumination. Concurrently, Parmigianino, a student of Correggio, and Giulio Romano, Raphael's principal assistant, pursued similarly stylized aesthetic trajectories in Rome. These artists had matured under the pervasive influence of the High Renaissance, and their stylistic output has been characterized either as a reaction against it or an exaggerated extension of its principles. Rather than directly observing nature, younger artists began to study Hellenistic sculpture and the paintings of past masters. Consequently, this style is frequently identified as "anti-classical," though at the time, it was perceived as a natural evolution from the High Renaissance. This earliest experimental phase of Mannerism, recognized for its "anti-classical" forms, persisted until approximately 1540 or 1550. Marcia B. Hall, a professor of art history at Temple University, observes in her book After Raphael that Raphael's untimely demise signaled the advent of Mannerism in Rome.
Historical analyses indicate that Mannerism emerged in the early 16th century, coinciding with significant social, scientific, religious, and political transformations, including Copernican heliocentrism, the 1527 Sack of Rome, and the escalating challenge posed by the Protestant Reformation to the Catholic Church's authority. Consequently, the style's characteristic elongated and distorted forms were previously understood as a direct response to the idealized compositions dominant in High Renaissance art. However, this interpretation of the radical stylistic shift around c. 1520 is no longer widely accepted by scholars, even though early Mannerist works remain distinctly divergent from High Renaissance conventions. The harmonious accessibility and equilibrium exemplified by Raphael's School of Athens, for instance, ceased to captivate emerging artists.
High Maniera
The second phase of Mannerism is typically distinguished from its initial, often termed 'anti-classical,' period. Later Mannerist artists emphasized intellectual sophistication and technical virtuosity, characteristics that prompted subsequent critics to describe their work as exhibiting an artificial and affected 'manner' (maniera). These Maniera practitioners regarded Michelangelo, their elder contemporary, as their primary artistic exemplar, thus creating an art that emulated other art rather than directly imitating nature. Art historian Sydney Joseph Freedberg posits that the intellectual dimension of maniera art relies on the audience's recognition and appreciation of these visual allusions—a familiar motif situated in an unfamiliar context, framed by 'unseen, but felt, quotation marks.' A hallmark of Maniera artifice is the painter's inclination for intentionally recontextualizing artistic quotations. Agnolo Bronzino and Giorgio Vasari epitomize this Maniera tendency, which prevailed from approximately 1530 to 1580. Predominantly cultivated in European courts and intellectual milieus, Maniera art combines heightened elegance with meticulous attention to surface and intricate detail: figures with porcelain-like skin are often depicted reclining in a subdued, even light, acknowledging the viewer with a detached gaze, if any direct eye contact is made. Maniera subjects seldom convey strong emotion, leading to works in this vein frequently being characterized as 'cold' or 'aloof.' This exemplifies the mature 'stylish style' or Maniera.
Dissemination
In Italy, Rome, Florence, and Mantua served as pivotal centers for Mannerist art, while Venetian painting, exemplified by Titian's extensive career, followed a distinct trajectory. The Sack of Rome in 1527 prompted many early Mannerist artists, who had been active in the city during the 1520s, to depart. Their subsequent dispersal across the continent in pursuit of commissions facilitated the dissemination of their style throughout Italy and Northern Europe, establishing Mannerism as the first international artistic movement since the Gothic period. Although some regions of Northern Europe lacked direct engagement with Italian artists, the Mannerist aesthetic permeated through prints and illustrated books. European monarchs and other patrons acquired Italian artworks, while Northern European artists continued to undertake journeys to Italy, thereby contributing to the style's broader diffusion. The presence of individual Italian artists working in the North also fostered the emergence of Northern Mannerism; for instance, Francis I of France received Bronzino's Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time as a gift. In Italy, the style began to decline after 1580, as a new generation of artists, including the Carracci brothers, Caravaggio, and Cigoli, initiated a revival of naturalism. Walter Friedlaender characterized this subsequent era as 'anti-mannerism,' drawing a parallel with the 'anti-classical' stance of early Mannerists who reacted against High Renaissance aesthetic principles. Today, the Carracci brothers and Caravaggio are widely recognized for inaugurating the transition to Baroque painting, which became the dominant style by 1600.
Beyond Italy, however, Mannerism persisted into the 17th century. In France, where Rosso worked for the court at Fontainebleau, the style is recognized as the "Henry II style" and exerted a notable influence on architecture. Prominent continental hubs for Northern Mannerism encompassed the court of Rudolf II in Prague, alongside Haarlem, Antwerp, and Danzig (Gdańsk). The classification of Mannerism is less frequently attributed to English visual and decorative arts, which typically employ indigenous designations like "Elizabethan" and "Jacobean." A notable exception is 17th-century Artisan Mannerism, a term applied to architectural practices that drew upon pattern books rather than established Continental European precedents.
Notably, the Flemish influence at Fontainebleau integrated the eroticism characteristic of the French style with an nascent form of the vanitas tradition, which subsequently became a dominant theme in 17th-century Dutch and Flemish painting. During this period, the concept of the pittore vago was widespread, referring to northern painters who assimilated into workshops in France and Italy, thereby contributing to the development of a genuinely international artistic style.
Sculpture
Mirroring developments in painting, early Italian Mannerist sculpture largely represented an endeavor to forge a distinctive style surpassing the accomplishments of the High Renaissance, particularly those of Michelangelo in sculpture. This artistic struggle was frequently manifested in commissions for the Piazza della Signoria in Florence, adjacent to Michelangelo's David. Baccio Bandinelli assumed the commission for Hercules and Cacus directly from Michelangelo; however, its reception was no more favorable then than it is today, with Benvenuto Cellini famously disparaging it as "a sack of melons." Despite this criticism, the work exerted a lasting influence by seemingly introducing relief panels on statue pedestals. Consistent with other Mannerist creations, including Bandinelli's own, this sculpture involved a significantly greater removal of material from the original block than Michelangelo typically employed. Conversely, Cellini's bronze Perseus with the Head of Medusa stands as an undisputed masterpiece, conceived to be appreciated from eight distinct viewpoints—a hallmark of Mannerist design—and exhibits an artificial stylization when contrasted with the David sculptures by Michelangelo and Donatello. Initially trained as a goldsmith, Cellini's renowned gold and enamel Salt Cellar (1543) marked his inaugural sculptural work, showcasing his exceptional artistic prowess.
Small bronze figures, frequently depicting mythological subjects with nudes for collector's cabinets, constituted a prevalent Renaissance art form. Giambologna, a Flemish artist who established his career in Florence, particularly excelled in this genre during the latter half of the century. Additionally, he produced life-size sculptures, two of which were incorporated into the collection displayed in the Piazza della Signoria. Giambologna and his adherents developed elegant, elongated renditions of the figura serpentinata, frequently featuring two intertwined figures, designed to offer compelling visual interest from multiple perspectives.
Early Theorists
Giorgio Vasari
Giorgio Vasari's perspectives on the art of painting are evident in the commendations he offers to fellow artists within his multi-volume work, Lives of the Artists. He posited that artistic excellence necessitated refinement, an abundance of invention (invenzione) conveyed through virtuosic technique (maniera), and the manifestation of intellect and diligent study in the completed artwork. These criteria collectively underscored the artist's intellectual capacity and the patron's discerning taste. Artists were no longer merely skilled members of a local Guild of St. Luke; instead, they ascended to positions within courtly circles, associating with scholars, poets, and humanists, within an environment that cultivated an appreciation for sophistication and intricacy. The coat-of-arms of Vasari's Medici patrons is prominently displayed at the apex of his portrait, almost as if it were his personal emblem. The framing of the woodcut illustration for Vasari's Lives would be categorized as "Jacobean" within an English-speaking context. This framing incorporates "anti-architectural" architectural elements at the top, a perforated, paper-like frame, and satyr nudes at the base, all inspired by Michelangelo's Medici tombs. As a mere frame, its extravagance is pronounced, embodying the essence of Mannerism.
Gian Paolo Lomazzo
Gian Paolo Lomazzo, another significant literary figure of the era, authored two distinct works—one practical and one metaphysical—that were instrumental in articulating the Mannerist artist's introspective relationship with their craft. His Trattato dell'arte della pittura, scoltura et architettura (Milan, 1584) functions partly as a manual on contemporary decorum, a concept partially inherited by the Renaissance from antiquity but significantly expanded upon by Mannerism. Lomazzo's systematic aesthetic codification, characteristic of the increasingly formalized and academic methodologies prevalent in the late 16th century, underscored the importance of harmony between interior functions and appropriate painted or sculpted decorations. Intricate and often recondite iconography became a more pronounced feature within Mannerist styles. His subsequent, more metaphysical work, Idea del tempio della pittura (The ideal temple of painting, Milan, 1590), explores human nature and personality through the lens of the "four temperaments" theory, thereby delineating the significance of individuality in artistic judgment and innovation.
Characteristics of Mannerist Artworks
Mannerism emerged as an anti-classical movement, diverging significantly from the aesthetic principles of the Renaissance. While initially received favorably, particularly through Vasari's writings, Mannerism subsequently garnered negative perceptions, being viewed merely as "an alteration of natural truth and a trite repetition of natural formulas." As an artistic phenomenon, Mannerism encompasses numerous distinctive characteristics that reflect an experimental approach to artistic perception. The following enumerates several specific characteristics frequently employed by Mannerist artists in their creations.
- Elongation of Figures: A prominent feature in Mannerist art was the elongation of the human figure, which occasionally resulted in peculiar or unconventional imagery.
- Distortion of Perspective: In painting, the manipulation of perspective served to investigate ideals concerning the creation of perfect spatial arrangements. Nevertheless, this pursuit of perfection occasionally manifested in the generation of distinctive visual compositions. Foreshortening was one technique frequently employed to achieve such distortion. In instances of extreme distortion, the resulting imagery could become almost indecipherable.
- Black Backgrounds: Mannerist artists frequently employed flat black backgrounds to achieve stark contrasts in contours, thereby enhancing dramatic scenes. These dark backgrounds also contributed to an ethereal or fantastical atmosphere within the depicted subject matter.
- Use of Darkness and Light: Many Mannerist artists sought to evoke the nocturnal essence through deliberate illumination, frequently imbuing scenes with a fantastical quality. Particular emphasis was placed on rendering torchlight and moonlight to heighten dramatic effect.
- Sculptural Forms: Mannerism exhibited a significant influence from sculpture, a medium that experienced a surge in popularity during the sixteenth century. Consequently, Mannerist artists frequently modeled their portrayals of the human physique on existing sculptures and prints. This practice enabled them to concentrate on achieving a heightened sense of three-dimensionality.
- Clarity of Line: A notable characteristic of Mannerism was the meticulous attention given to the precise outlines of figures, distinguishing it significantly from both Baroque and High Renaissance styles. These distinct outlines frequently facilitated a greater emphasis on intricate details.
- Composition and Space: Mannerist artists deliberately departed from Renaissance ideals, particularly the convention of one-point perspective. Instead, their focus shifted towards atmospheric effects and the deliberate distortion of perspective. The spatial arrangements in Mannerist artworks thus favored either densely populated compositions featuring numerous forms and figures or sparse compositions that highlighted black backgrounds.
- Mannerist Movement: The profound interest in human locomotion frequently led Mannerist artists to depict distinctive, serpentine poses. These often-unstable figures, through their dynamic motions, frequently imply subsequent movements. Furthermore, this technique exemplifies the artists' experimental approach to form.
- Painted Frames: In certain Mannerist creations, painted frames were integrated to harmonize with the background of the artwork, occasionally becoming an intrinsic part of the overall composition. This integration was particularly evident when intricate detailing was a primary focus.
- Mannerist artists frequently employed sfumato, a technique characterized by "the rendering of soft and hazy contours or surfaces," to depict the streaming of light in their compositions.
- Beyond the experimentation with form, composition, and light, Mannerism uniquely extended its innovative approach to color. Numerous artworks feature pure and intense hues of blues, greens, pinks, and yellows, which occasionally disrupt the overall design but at other times enhance it. When rendering figures, artists frequently accentuated the luminosity of complexions and incorporated blue undertones.
Prominent Artists and Exemplary Works
Jacopo da Pontormo
Jacopo da Pontormo's oeuvre represents a foundational contribution to Mannerism. His subject matter frequently derived from religious narratives, and, significantly influenced by Michelangelo, he often referenced or directly employed sculptural forms as compositional models. A distinctive characteristic of his art is the depiction of figures whose gazes often directly engage the viewer from multiple angles. Pontormo, known for his meticulous and deliberate working process, frequently expressed apprehension regarding the quality of his creations. His enduring legacy is highly esteemed, having profoundly influenced artists like Agnolo Bronzino and shaped the aesthetic principles of late Mannerism.
Pontormo's Joseph in Egypt, completed in 1517, presents a continuous narrative encompassing four distinct Biblical episodes depicting Joseph's reunion with his family. The left side of the composition illustrates Joseph introducing his family to the Pharaoh of Egypt. On the right, Joseph is depicted atop a rolling bench, surrounded by cherubs, other figures, and distant rocks along a path. Above these scenes, a spiral staircase ascends, up which Joseph guides one of his sons towards their mother at the summit. The final scene, situated on the right, portrays the concluding moments of Jacob's life, observed by his sons.
Joseph in Egypt exemplifies several key Mannerist characteristics. Notably, it employs incongruous color schemes, with diverse shades of pinks and blues dominating the canvas. Another Mannerist feature is the disjointed temporal and spatial representation of Joseph's narrative across multiple scenes. By integrating these four distinct narratives, Pontormo constructs a densely packed composition, conveying an overarching impression of visual complexity and activity.
Rosso Fiorentino and the School of Fontainebleau
Rosso Fiorentino, a contemporary of Pontormo in Andrea del Sarto's studio, introduced Florentine Mannerism to Fontainebleau in 1530. There, he emerged as a pivotal figure in establishing French 16th-century Mannerism, subsequently known as the School of Fontainebleau.
The opulent and dynamic decorative aesthetic developed at Fontainebleau significantly propagated the Italian style. This dissemination occurred primarily through engravings, reaching Antwerp and subsequently extending across Northern Europe, from London to Poland. Mannerist design principles were also applied to luxury items, including silverwork and carved furniture. Characteristic features of this style encompass a heightened sense of controlled tension conveyed through intricate symbolism and allegory, alongside an idealized representation of female beauty marked by elongated proportions.
Agnolo Bronzino
Agnolo Bronzino, a pupil of Pontormo, developed a highly influential style that frequently complicated the attribution of numerous artworks. Throughout his career, Bronzino also collaborated with Vasari, serving as a set designer for the production "Comedy of Magicians," during which he executed numerous portraits. His art was highly coveted, and he achieved considerable acclaim upon his appointment as court painter to the Medici family in 1539. A distinctive Mannerist trait in Bronzino's oeuvre was his characteristic depiction of luminous, almost milky, complexions.
Bronzino's painting, Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time, depicts an enigmatic erotic scene that provokes numerous interpretations. The foreground features Cupid and Venus on the verge of a kiss, seemingly interrupted mid-act. Above them, mythological figures include Father Time on the right, drawing back a curtain to unveil the pair, and the goddess of the night on the left. The composition further incorporates a collection of masks, a hybrid creature combining features of a girl and a serpent, and a figure in intense agony. Various theories have been proposed for the painting's meaning, such as its potential commentary on the perils of syphilis or its function as a courtly diversion.
Bronzino's Mannerist portraits are characterized by a tranquil elegance and an exacting focus on intricate details. Consequently, his subjects often convey an impression of detachment and emotional distance from the observer. A notable aspect is the masterful rendering of the precise patterns and lustrous sheen of opulent textiles. In Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time, Bronzino specifically employs Mannerist techniques, including distinctive movement, meticulous detail, vibrant color, and sculptural forms. The awkward, contorted postures of Cupid and Venus, as they partially embrace, exemplify this Mannerist movement. Bronzino notably renders the complexions of the figures with a flawless, porcelain-like white, smoothly effacing their musculature to evoke the polished surface of sculpture.
Alessandro Allori
Alessandro Allori's (1535–1607) Susanna and the Elders is notable for its subtle eroticism and deliberately striking still-life elements, all integrated within a dense, contorted composition.
Jacopo Tintoretto
Jacopo Tintoretto is recognized for his distinct contributions to Venetian painting, diverging significantly from Titian's legacy. His artistic output, which markedly differed from that of his predecessors, drew criticism from Vasari for its "fantastical, extravagant, bizarre style." Tintoretto incorporated Mannerist elements into his work, thereby moving away from traditional Venetian painting conventions. He frequently produced art that blended fantastical components with naturalism. Additional distinctive features of Tintoretto's oeuvre include his emphasis on color, achieved through the consistent application of rough brushstrokes and experimental pigment use to generate optical illusions.
Tintoretto's Last Supper, commissioned by Michele Alabardi for San Giorgio Maggiore in 1591, exemplifies Mannerist characteristics. In this depiction, the scene is rendered from the perspective of a group positioned along the right side of the composition. To the left, Christ and the Apostles are seated at one side of the table, with Judas conspicuously isolated. The predominantly dark setting features limited light sources, notably emanating from Christ's halo and a torch suspended above the table.
The distinctive composition of Tintoretto's Last Supper prominently displays Mannerist traits. A key characteristic employed by Tintoretto is the dark background. While the painting suggests an interior setting through perspective, the compositional edges are largely enveloped in shadow, enhancing the dramatic impact of the central Last Supper scene. Furthermore, Tintoretto employs dramatic spotlighting, particularly evident in Christ's halo and the suspended torch illuminating the table. A third Mannerist feature utilized by Tintoretto involves the atmospheric depiction of figures, appearing as if formed from smoke and hovering within the composition.
El Greco
El Greco, the Cretan-born Spanish painter, sought to convey religious emotion through exaggerated features. Following the High Renaissance's achievements in realistic human depiction and mastery of perspective, certain artists intentionally distorted proportions within fragmented, illogical spaces for expressive and aesthetic impact. El Greco remains a profoundly original artist, whom contemporary scholars describe as so distinctive that he defies categorization within any conventional school. Prominent Mannerist elements in El Greco's work encompass a discordant "acid" color palette, elongated and contorted anatomical forms, illogical perspective and lighting, and enigmatic, disquieting iconography. El Greco's distinctive style represented a synthesis of unique artistic developments rooted in his Greek heritage and his travels through Spain and Italy.
El Greco's artistic output integrated diverse stylistic elements, encompassing Byzantine influences, the techniques of Caravaggio and Parmigianino, and Venetian color palettes. His profound emphasis on color was a fundamental aspect of his painting, which he considered paramount. Throughout his career, El Greco's creations consistently garnered significant demand, leading to major commissions, including those for institutions like the Colegio de la Encarnación de Madrid.
El Greco's distinctive painting style and its alignment with Mannerist attributes are evident in his 1610 work, Laocoön. This painting illustrates the mythological narrative of Laocoön, who cautioned the Trojans regarding the peril of the wooden horse, presented by the Greeks as a peace offering to the goddess Athena. Consequently, Athena (or her Roman counterpart, Minerva) exacted vengeance by dispatching serpents to slay Laocoön and his two sons. Rather than depicting Troy as the setting, El Greco positioned the scene near Toledo, Spain, intending to "universalize the story by drawing out its relevance for the contemporary world."
The distinctive style of El Greco's Laocoön serves as a prime illustration of numerous Mannerist characteristics. Notably, the composition features elongated human forms and serpentine movements, which collectively impart an impression of elegance. Furthermore, the painting exhibits Mannerist atmospheric effects through El Greco's depiction of a hazy sky and a blurred background landscape.
Benvenuto Cellini
In 1540, Benvenuto Cellini crafted the Cellini Salt Cellar, an exquisite piece made of gold and enamel. It features figures of Poseidon and Amphitrite, symbolizing water and earth, rendered in unconventional poses and with elongated proportions. This work is widely recognized as a seminal masterpiece of Mannerist sculpture.
Lavinia Fontana
Lavinia Fontana (1552–1614) was a prominent Mannerist portraitist, frequently recognized as the first professional female artist in Western Europe. She held the esteemed position of Portraitist in Ordinary at the Vatican. Her artistic approach is distinguished by influences from the Carracci family of painters and the vibrant color palettes characteristic of the Venetian School. Fontana is particularly celebrated for her portraits of noblewomen and her depictions of nude figures, a subject matter considered unconventional for a female artist during her era.
Taddeo Zuccaro (or Zuccari)
Taddeo Zuccaro was born in Sant'Angelo in Vado, a town near Urbino, as the son of Ottaviano Zuccari, a painter of limited renown. His brother, Federico, born circa 1540, also pursued careers as a painter and architect.
Federico Zuccaro (or Zuccari)
Federico Zuccaro's professional artistic career commenced in 1550, upon his relocation to Rome to apprentice under his elder brother, Taddeo. Subsequently, he executed decorative works for Pope Pius IV and contributed to the fresco embellishments at the Villa Farnese in Caprarola. From 1563 to 1565, Zuccaro was engaged in Venice, collaborating with the Grimani family of Santa Maria Formosa. During this Venetian tenure, he journeyed through Friuli in the company of Palladio.
Joachim Wtewael
Joachim Wtewael (1566–1638) maintained a Northern Mannerist painting style throughout his life, notably disregarding the emergence of Baroque art. This adherence positions him as potentially the last prominent Mannerist artist to remain active. His oeuvre encompassed extensive still-life compositions, reminiscent of Pieter Aertsen, alongside mythological scenes. Many of his works were small cabinet paintings, meticulously rendered on copper, frequently featuring nude figures.
Giuseppe Arcimboldo
Giuseppe Arcimboldo is primarily recognized for his distinctive artworks that integrate elements of still life and portraiture. His artistic approach is categorized as Mannerist, characterized by an assemblage style where fruits and vegetables form compositions that can be interpreted in multiple orientations, including inverted. Arcimboldo's creations also align with Mannerism through the humor they impart to viewers, diverging from the profound seriousness often associated with Renaissance art. Stylistically, his paintings are notable for their meticulous observation of nature and the conceptualization of a "monstrous appearance."
Among Arcimboldo's works exhibiting distinct Mannerist characteristics is the painting Vertumnus. Depicted against a black background, it presents a portrait of Rudolf II, whose form is composed entirely of various vegetables, flowers, and fruits. The painting's humorous aspect conveys a commentary on power, suggesting that Emperor Rudolf II concealed a darker inner self behind his public persona. Conversely, its serious undertone portends the prosperity anticipated during his imperial tenure.
The artwork Vertumnus incorporates several Mannerist elements, evident in both its composition and thematic content. A notable feature is the flat, black background, employed by Arcimboldo to underscore the Emperor's status and identity, while simultaneously accentuating the fantastical nature of his rule. In this portrait of Rudolf II, Arcimboldo deviates from the naturalistic representation typical of the Renaissance, instead exploring compositional construction by rendering the Emperor from an assemblage of fruits, vegetables, plants, and flowers. Furthermore, the painting exemplifies Mannerism through its dual narrative, juxtaposing humor with a serious message—a departure from the typical absence of humor in Renaissance art.
Architecture
Mannerist architecture distinguished itself through visual deception and unconventional elements that subverted established Renaissance conventions. Flemish artists, many of whom had assimilated Mannerist innovations during their travels in Italy, played a pivotal role in disseminating these trends across Europe north of the Alps, particularly within architectural design. During this period, architects experimented with utilizing architectural forms to emphasize solid and spatial relationships. The Renaissance emphasis on harmony yielded to more fluid and imaginative compositional rhythms. Michelangelo (1475–1564), a pioneer at the Laurentian Library, is recognized as the most prominent architect associated with the Mannerist style. He is credited with conceiving the giant order, a monumental pilaster or column extending vertically across multiple stories of a façade, which he employed in his design for the Piazza del Campidoglio in Rome. Concurrently, the Herrerian style (Spanish: estilo herreriano or arquitectura herreriana) of architecture emerged in Spain during the final third of the 16th century under the reign of Philip II (1556–1598), persisting into the 17th century, albeit transformed by the prevailing Baroque style. This style represents the third and ultimate phase of Spanish Renaissance architecture, characterized by a progressive ornamental simplification, transitioning from the initial Plateresque and the classical Purism of the mid-16th century to the complete decorative austerity introduced by the Herrerian style.
Before the 20th century, the term Mannerism carried pejorative connotations; however, it is now employed to characterize the historical period in broader, non-evaluative terms. Mannerist architecture has also been invoked to describe a mid-20th-century trend (1960s and 1970s) that simultaneously challenged and acknowledged the conventions of modernist architecture. In this context, architect and author Robert Venturi defined Mannerism as: "Mannerism for architecture of our time that acknowledges conventional order rather than original expression but breaks the conventional order to accommodate complexity and contradiction and thereby engages ambiguity unambiguously."
Renaissance Examples
The Villa Farnese at Caprarola, situated in the rugged Roman countryside, serves as a prominent example of Mannerist architecture. The widespread activity of engravers during the 16th century facilitated the dissemination of Mannerist styles at an unprecedented rate compared to earlier artistic movements.
The ornate display doorway at Colditz Castle, rich with "Roman" detailing, exemplifies the northern Mannerist style, typically applied as a distinct, isolated architectural element against unadorned vernacular masonry.
Beginning in the late 1560s, numerous structures in Valletta, Malta's newly established capital, were conceived by architect Girolamo Cassar in the Mannerist idiom. These edifices encompass St. John's Co-Cathedral, the Grandmaster's Palace, and the seven original auberges. While many of Cassar's constructions underwent subsequent alterations, particularly during the Baroque era, a select number, including Auberge d'Aragon and the exterior of St. John's Co-Cathedral, largely preserve Cassar's initial Mannerist aesthetic.
While many architectural styles explore harmonious ideals, Mannerism advances beyond conventional stylistic norms by exploring the aesthetics of hyperbole and exaggeration. It is distinguished by its intellectual sophistication and its artificial, rather than naturalistic, characteristics. Mannerism prioritizes compositional tension and instability over traditional balance and clarity. The precise definition of Mannerism and its internal phases remains a subject of ongoing scholarly debate among art historians.
Northern, or Antwerp, Mannerism preceded and diverged from Italian Mannerism. During its 16th-century economic prosperity, Antwerp developed a distinctive style, representing the final phase of Early Netherlandish painting while incorporating Early Renaissance elements. Antwerp served as a crucial conduit for the widespread dissemination of both Renaissance and Mannerist styles throughout England, Germany, and broader Northern and Eastern Europe.
Literature and Music
Literary Mannerism encompassed prominent figures including Michelangelo, Clément Marot, Giovanni della Casa, Giovanni Battista Guarini, Torquato Tasso, Veronica Franco, and Miguel de Cervantes, among others.
In English literature, Mannerism is frequently associated with the characteristics of the "Metaphysical poets," with John Donne being the most renowned. A concise distinction between Baroque and Mannerist artistic objectives is provided by the astute critique of John Dryden, a Baroque writer, directed at the poetry of John Donne from the preceding generation:
He affects the metaphysics, not only in his satires but in his amorous verses, where nature only should reign; and perplexes the minds of the fair sex with nice speculations of philosophy when he should engage their hearts and entertain them with the softnesses of love.
The abundant musical potential inherent in late 16th and early 17th-century poetry offered a compelling foundation for the madrigal. This form rapidly achieved prominence as the foremost musical genre within Italian culture, as observed by Tim Carter:
The madrigal, particularly in its aristocratic guise, was obviously a vehicle for the 'stylish style' of Mannerism, with poets and musicians revelling in witty conceits and other visual, verbal and musical tricks to delight the connoisseur.
The term 'Mannerism' has also been applied to characterize the highly ornate and contrapuntally intricate polyphonic music composed in late 14th-century France. This era is now more commonly designated as the ars subtilior.
Mannerism and Theatre
The Early Commedia dell'Arte (1550–1621): The Mannerist Context by Paul Castagno examines the influence of Mannerism on contemporary professional theatre. Castagno's research marked the initial attempt to categorize a theatrical form as Mannerist, utilizing the terminology of Mannerism and *maniera* to analyze the typification, exaggeration, and effetto meraviglioso inherent in the comici dell'arte. The study is predominantly iconographic, offering pictorial evidence that numerous artists responsible for painting or printing *commedia* images originated from contemporary workshops deeply embedded in the *maniera* tradition.
The intricate detail in Jacques Callot's minute engravings appears to suggest a far grander scale of action. Callot's Balli di Sfessania (lit.'dance of the buttocks') depicts the *commedia*'s overt eroticism through elements such as protruding phalli, spears positioned with the implication of comic penetration, and grotesquely exaggerated masks that fuse bestial and human characteristics. The eroticism associated with the innamorate ("lovers"), manifested through elements like bared breasts or elaborate veiling, was highly fashionable in paintings and engravings from the second School of Fontainebleau, especially those exhibiting a Franco-Flemish influence. Castagno establishes iconographic connections between genre painting and the *commedia dell'arte* figures, illustrating how this theatrical form was deeply integrated into the cultural traditions of the late *cinquecento*.
Commedia dell'arte, disegno interno, and the discordia concors
Significant correlations exist between the disegno interno, which superseded the disegno esterno (external design) in Mannerist painting. This concept involves projecting a profoundly subjective perspective that overrides natural forms or established principles (such as linear perspective), thereby shifting emphasis from the object to its subject, and highlighting execution, virtuosity, or distinctive techniques. This internal vision is fundamental to commedia performance. For instance, during improvisation, an actor demonstrates virtuosity without adhering to formal constraints, decorum, unity, or a prescribed text. Arlecchino epitomized the Mannerist discordia concors (the union of opposites); he could be gentle and benevolent one moment, then abruptly transform into a violent thief engaging in conflict. Arlecchino might exhibit graceful movement, only to clumsily stumble in the subsequent instant. Liberated from external regulations, the actor celebrated the ephemeral nature of the moment, much like Benvenuto Cellini captivated patrons by draping his sculptures and revealing them with dramatic lighting and a sense of wonder. The presentation of an object thus became as crucial as the object itself.
Neo-Mannerism
In the 20th century, the emergence of Neo-Mannerism originated with the artist Ernie Barnes. The style was profoundly influenced by both the Jewish and African-American communities, culminating in "The Beauty of the Ghetto" exhibition, which toured between 1972 and 1979. This exhibition traveled to major American cities and received patronage from dignitaries, professional athletes, and celebrities. When the exhibition was displayed in 1974 at the Museum of African Art in Washington, D.C., Representative John Conyers underscored its significant positive message in the Congressional Record.
The Neo-Mannerist style, as developed by Barnes, features subjects characterized by elongated limbs and bodies, alongside exaggerated movement. Another recurring motif is the closed eyes of the subjects, symbolizing "how blind we are to one another's humanity." Barnes articulated this as: "We look upon each other and decide immediately: This person is black, so he must be ... This person lives in poverty, so he must be ...".
Theatre and cinema
In an interview, film director Peter Greenaway cited Federico Fellini and Bill Viola as primary inspirations for his extensive and self-referential exploration of the inherent tension between the database structure of images and the diverse analog and digital interfaces that cinematically organize them. This engagement can be classified as neo-mannerist precisely because it distinguishes itself from the (neo-)baroque: "Just as Roman Catholicism would offer you paradise and heaven, there is an equivalent commercial paradise being offered very largely by the whole capitalistic effect, which is associated with Western cinema. This is my political analogy in terms of the use of multimedia as a political weapon. I would equate, in a sense, the great baroque Counter-Reformation, its cultural activity, with what cinema, American cinema predominantly, has been doing in the last seventy years."
As a term of criticism
According to art critic Jerry Saltz, "Neo-Mannerism" (new Mannerism) is among several clichés that are "squeezing the life out of the art world." Saltz defines Neo-Mannerism as 21st-century art produced by students whose academic instructors "have scared [them] into being pleasingly meek, imitative, and ordinary."
Counter-Maniera
- Counter-Maniera
- Mannerist architecture and sculpture in Poland
- Timeline of Italian artists to 1800
- Mannerism in Brazil
- Philippe Millereau
- Art of the late 16th century in Milan
Footnotes
References
- An article titled "Mannerism: Bronzino (1503–1572) and his Contemporaries" from the Metropolitan Museum of Art.