Leo Tolstoy

Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy (; Russian: Лев Николаевич Толстой, IPA: [ˈlʲefnʲɪkɐˈla(j)ɪvʲɪtɕtɐlˈstoj] ; 9 September [O.S. 28 August] 1828 – 20 November [O.S. 7 November] 1910), commonly known in English as Leo Tolstoy, was a prominent Russian writer. He is widely considered among the most significant and influential authors in literary history.

Originating from an aristocratic lineage, Tolstoy gained early recognition in his twenties through his semi-autobiographical trilogy, Childhood, Boyhood, and Youth (1852–1856), alongside Sevastopol Sketches (1855), which drew from his experiences during the Crimean War. His seminal works, including War and Peace (1869), Anna Karenina (1878), and Resurrection (1899)—the latter inspired by his "youthful sins"—are frequently regarded as exemplary achievements in realist fiction and among the most significant novels ever composed. His extensive body of work, or oeuvre, also encompasses short stories like "Alyosha the Pot" (1911) and "After the Ball" (1911), as well as novellas such as Family Happiness (1859), The Death of Ivan Ilyich (1886), The Kreutzer Sonata (1889), The Devil (1911), and Hadji Murat (1912). Additionally, he authored plays and essays exploring philosophical, moral, and religious subjects.

During the 1870s, Tolstoy underwent a significant moral crisis, which he subsequently described as an equally profound spiritual awakening, documented in his non-fiction work Confession (1882). His rigorous interpretation of Jesus' ethical doctrines, particularly those from the Sermon on the Mount, led him to embrace fervent Christian anarchism and pacifism. His concepts of nonviolent resistance, articulated in publications such as The Kingdom of God Is Within You (1894), significantly influenced prominent 20th-century personalities including Mahatma Gandhi, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Martin Luther King Jr., and James Bevel. Furthermore, he became a committed proponent of Georgism, the economic philosophy developed by Henry George, integrating these principles into his literary output, notably in his novel Resurrection (1899).

Tolstoy garnered extensive commendation from numerous authors and critics, both contemporaneously and posthumously. Virginia Woolf famously declared Tolstoy "the greatest of all novelists," while Gary Saul Morson characterized War and Peace as the paramount novel. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature annually from 1902 to 1906, and for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1901, 1902, and 1909. The fact that Tolstoy was never awarded a Nobel Prize continues to be a notable controversy surrounding the awards.

Origins

The Tolstoy family constituted a prominent lineage within the old Russian nobility, asserting their descent from a legendary nobleman named Indris. Pyotr Tolstoy documented Indris's arrival in Chernigov in 1353 "from Nemec, from the lands of Caesar," accompanied by his two sons, Litvinos (also known as Litvonis) and Zimonten (or Zigmont), and a retinue of 3000 individuals. Indris subsequently converted to Eastern Orthodoxy, adopting the name Leonty, while his sons were named Konstantin and Feodor. Konstantin's grandson, Andrei Kharitonovich, earned the moniker Tolstiy (meaning fat) from Vasily II of Moscow following his relocation from Chernigov to Moscow.

Given the presence of pagan names and Chernigov's governance by Demetrius I Starshy during that period, some scholars have posited that the family originated from Lithuania, having arrived from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Concurrently, no historical records from the 14th to 16th centuries corroborate the existence of Indris, and the Chernigov Chronicles, cited by Pyotr Tolstoy, are no longer extant. The earliest verifiable members of the Tolstoy family are recorded in the 17th century, leading to the general consensus that Pyotr Tolstoy himself is the progenitor of the noble house, having been bestowed the title of count by Peter the Great.

Life and career

Leo Tolstoy was born at Yasnaya Polyana, a family estate situated 12 kilometers (7.5 miles) southwest of Tula and 200 kilometers (120 miles) south of Moscow. He was the fourth of five children born to Count Nikolai Ilyich Tolstoy (1794–1837), a veteran of the Patriotic War of 1812, and Princess Mariya Tolstaya (née Volkonskaya; 1790–1830). Tolstoy's mother passed away when he was two years old, and his father died when he was nine. Consequently, Tolstoy and his siblings were raised by relatives. In 1844, he commenced studies in law and oriental languages at Kazan University, though his instructors characterized him as "both unable and unwilling to learn." Tolstoy subsequently departed the university mid-course, returning to Yasnaya Polyana before spending considerable time in Moscow, Tula, and Saint Petersburg, where he pursued a rather dissolute and leisurely lifestyle. During this period, he began his literary endeavors, including his debut novel Childhood, a fictionalized portrayal of his early life, published in 1852. By 1851, having accumulated substantial gambling debts, he accompanied his elder brother to the Caucasus and enlisted in the army. Tolstoy served as a junior artillery officer during the Crimean War, participating in the 11-month siege of Sevastopol from 1854 to 1855, which included the Battle of the Chernaya. His bravery during the conflict earned him recognition and a promotion to lieutenant. Appalled by the extensive loss of life inherent in warfare, he resigned from the army following the conclusion of the Crimean War.

Tolstoy's military service and two European journeys in 1857 and 1860–61 were pivotal in his transformation from a privileged, dissolute society author into a proponent of non-violence and spiritual anarchism. Notable figures such as Alexander Herzen, Mikhail Bakunin, and Peter Kropotkin also embraced similar philosophical trajectories. During his 1857 visit, Tolstoy witnessed a public execution in Paris, an event he described as profoundly traumatic and which left an indelible mark on his worldview. In a letter to his friend Vasily Botkin, Tolstoy articulated his conviction: "The truth is that the State is a conspiracy designed not only to exploit, but above all to corrupt its citizens ... Henceforth, I shall never serve any government anywhere." His understanding of non-violence, or ahimsa, was further reinforced upon reading a German translation of the Tirukkural. He subsequently conveyed this concept to Mahatma Gandhi through his work "A Letter to a Hindu," written during their correspondence when Gandhi sought his counsel.

Tolstoy's European journey in 1860–61 significantly influenced both his political and literary evolution, particularly through his encounter with Victor Hugo. Tolstoy read Hugo's recently completed novel, Les Misérables. The thematic parallels, especially in the depiction of battle scenes within Hugo's novel and Tolstoy's War and Peace, suggest this profound influence. Furthermore, Tolstoy's political philosophy was shaped by a March 1861 Tolstoy reviewed Proudhon's impending publication, La Guerre et la Paix (French for "War and Peace"), a title he subsequently adopted for his own seminal work. Their discussions also encompassed educational theory, with Tolstoy noting in his educational notebooks: "If I recount this conversation with Proudhon, it is to show that, in my personal experience, he was the only man who understood the significance of education and of the printing press in our time."

Inspired by these experiences, Tolstoy returned to Yasnaya Polyana and established 13 schools for the children of Russian peasants, who had recently been emancipated from serfdom in 1861. He articulated the pedagogical principles of these institutions in his 1862 essay, "The School at Yasnaya Polyana." These educational experiments proved ephemeral, partly attributable to harassment by the Tsarist secret police. Nevertheless, the school at Yasnaya Polyana is justifiably recognized as a direct precursor to A.S. Neill's Summerhill School and can be considered the inaugural instance of a coherent theory of democratic education.

Personal life

The passing of his brother Nikolay in 1860 significantly affected Tolstoy, prompting him to consider marriage. On September 23, 1862, Tolstoy married Sophia Andreevna Behrs, who was sixteen years his junior and the daughter of a court physician. Affectionately known as Sonya by her family and friends, this name is the Russian diminutive of Sofia. Together, they had 13 children, with eight surviving into adulthood:

• Count Sergei Lvovich Tolstoy (1863–1947), a composer and ethnomusicologist.
• Countess Tatyana Lvovna Tolstaya (1864–1950), who married Mikhail Sergeevich Sukhotin.
• Count Ilya Lvovich Tolstoy (1866–1933), a writer.
• Count Lev Lvovich Tolstoy (1869–1945), a writer and sculptor.
• Countess Maria Lvovna Tolstaya (1871–1906), who married Nikolai Leonidovich Obolensky.
• Count Peter Lvovich Tolstoy (1872–1873), who died in infancy.
• Count Nikolai Lvovich Tolstoy (1874–1875), who died in infancy.
• Countess Varvara Lvovna Tolstaya (1875–1875), who died in infancy.
• Count Andrei Lvovich Tolstoy (1877–1916), who served in the Russo-Japanese War.
• Count Michael Lvovich Tolstoy (1879–1944).
• Count Alexei Lvovich Tolstoy (1881–1886).
• Countess Alexandra Lvovna Tolstaya (1884–1979).
• Count Ivan Lvovich Tolstoy (1888–1895).

Prior to their marriage, Tolstoy presented his fiancée with diaries that detailed his extensive sexual history, including the revelation that a serf on his estate had borne him a son. Despite these disclosures, their early marital period was characterized by happiness, providing Tolstoy with considerable freedom and a robust support system essential for the composition of War and Peace and Anna Karenina. During this time, Sonya served as his secretary, editor, and financial manager. Sonya meticulously copied and transcribed his epic works repeatedly. Tolstoy continued to edit War and Peace, necessitating the preparation of pristine final drafts for submission to the publisher.

Conversely, their later life together has been characterized by A.N. Wilson as among the most challenging in literary history. The relationship between Tolstoy and his wife deteriorated as his philosophical and social beliefs grew increasingly radical. This radicalization led him to disavow his inherited and acquired wealth, notably through the renunciation of copyrights for his earlier literary productions.

During the completion of the final installments of Anna Karenina, Tolstoy experienced profound mental anguish, leading him to conceal firearms and ropes due to suicidal ideation.

Following the 1905 Russian Revolution or the subsequent establishment of the Soviet Union after the 1917 October Revolution, certain members of the Tolstoy family emigrated from Russia. Consequently, many of Leo Tolstoy's relatives and descendants currently reside in Sweden, Germany, the United Kingdom, France, and the United States. Notably, Tolstoy's son, Count Lev Lvovich Tolstoy, settled in Sweden and married a Swedish national; their descendants, bearing surnames such as Tolstoy, Paus, and Ceder, continue to reside in Sweden. The Paus branch of the family also maintains a close familial connection to Henrik Ibsen. Leo Tolstoy's last surviving grandchild, Countess Tatiana Tolstoy-Paus, passed away in 2007 at Herresta manor in Sweden, a property still owned by Tolstoy's descendants. Swedish writer Daria Paus and jazz singer Viktoria Tolstoy are recognized among Leo Tolstoy's Swedish descendants.

One of Tolstoy's great-great-grandsons, Vladimir Tolstoy (born 1962), has served as director of the Yasnaya Polyana museum since 1994 and as an adviser to the President of Russia on cultural affairs since 2012. Ilya Tolstoy's great-grandson, Pyotr Tolstoy, is a prominent Russian journalist and television presenter, in addition to serving as a State Duma deputy since 2016. His cousin, Fyokla Tolstaya (born Anna Tolstaya in 1971), daughter of the acclaimed Soviet Slavist Nikita Tolstoy (ru) (1923–1996), is also a Russian journalist, television, and radio host.

Novels and fictional works

Tolstoy is widely regarded as a preeminent figure in Russian literature; his oeuvre encompasses the novels War and Peace and Anna Karenina, alongside novellas such as Hadji Murad and The Death of Ivan Ilyich. Tolstoy's initial literary endeavors, the autobiographical novels Childhood, Boyhood, and Youth (1852–1856), chronicle the experiences of a wealthy landowner's son and his gradual recognition of the social disparity separating him from his peasants. Although he subsequently dismissed these works as sentimental, they nonetheless reveal significant aspects of Tolstoy's personal life. These early narratives maintain their relevance as portrayals of the universal human experience of maturation. Tolstoy served as a second lieutenant within an artillery regiment during the Crimean War, an experience documented in his Sevastopol Sketches. His combat experiences significantly influenced his subsequent development of pacifist convictions and provided him with material for the realistic portrayal of war's atrocities in his later literary output.

Tolstoy's literary works consistently aimed to realistically portray the Russian society of his era. His 1863 novel, The Cossacks, depicts Cossack culture and its people through the narrative of a Russian aristocrat's romance with a Cossack woman. Anna Karenina, published in 1877, presents two interwoven narratives: one concerning an adulterous woman ensnared by societal norms and deceptions, and another about a philosophical landowner (a character often seen as a reflection of Tolstoy himself) who labors with peasants and endeavors to improve their conditions. Tolstoy frequently incorporated elements from his personal experiences and crafted characters mirroring himself, exemplified by Pierre Bezukhov and Prince Andrei in War and Peace, Levin in Anna Karenina, and to some degree, Prince Nekhlyudov in Resurrection. Richard Pevear, a translator of numerous Tolstoy works, characterized Tolstoy's distinctive style by stating, "His works are full of provocation and irony, and written with broad and elaborately developed rhetorical devices."

War and Peace is widely regarded as one of the most significant novels ever composed, notable for its expansive scope and cohesive structure. This extensive work features 580 characters, comprising both historical figures and fictional creations. The narrative spans diverse settings, from intimate family life to Napoleon's headquarters, and from the court of Alexander I of Russia to the battlefields of Austerlitz and Borodino. Initially, Tolstoy conceived the novel to explore the origins of the Decembrist revolt, a subject referenced only in its concluding chapters, implying that Andrei Bolkonsky's son would eventually join the Decembrists. The work delves into Tolstoy's historical philosophy, particularly emphasizing the limited impact of prominent individuals like Napoleon and Alexander. Intriguingly, Tolstoy himself did not classify War and Peace as a novel, a sentiment he extended to many other significant Russian fictional works of his era. This perspective becomes more understandable when considering Tolstoy's adherence to the realist school of thought, which viewed the novel as a medium for analyzing 19th-century social and political concerns. Consequently, War and Peace, which Tolstoy considered an epic in prose, did not fit his definition of a novel. He designated Anna Karenina as his inaugural novel.

Subsequent to Anna Karenina, Tolstoy shifted his focus to Christian themes. His later works, including The Death of Ivan Ilyich (1886) and What Is to Be Done?, articulate a radical anarcho-pacifist Christian philosophy, which ultimately resulted in his excommunication from the Russian Orthodox Church in 1901. Following his religious conversion, Tolstoy repudiated much of modern Western culture, even dismissing his own novels War and Peace and Anna Karenina as elitist "counterfeit art" that diverged from the Christian ideal of universal brotherly love he aimed to convey.

In his novel Resurrection, Tolstoy endeavors to reveal the inherent injustice of human-made laws and the duplicity of institutionalized religion. Additionally, Tolstoy examines and elucidates the economic philosophy of Georgism, a doctrine he ardently supported in his later years.

Tolstoy also experimented with poetry, composing several soldier songs during his military tenure and verse fairy tales like Volga-bogatyr and Oaf, which were stylized as national folk songs. These poetic works were created between 1871 and 1874 for his Russian Book for Reading, a four-volume compilation of 629 short stories across various genres, published alongside the New Azbuka textbook and intended for schoolchildren. Despite these efforts, he maintained skepticism regarding poetry as a literary form. He famously remarked, "Writing poetry is like ploughing and dancing at the same time." Valentin Bulgakov noted that Tolstoy criticized poets, including Alexander Pushkin, for employing "false" epithets merely for the sake of rhyme.

Critical appraisal by other authors

Tolstoy received significant acclaim from his contemporaries. Fyodor Dostoyevsky, who predeceased Tolstoy by three decades, expressed admiration and delight for Tolstoy's novels; conversely, Tolstoy also held Dostoyevsky's work in high regard. Upon reading a translation of War and Peace, Gustave Flaubert reportedly exclaimed, "What an artist and what a psychologist!" Anton Chekhov, a frequent visitor to Tolstoy's country estate, observed, "When literature possesses a Tolstoy, it is easy and pleasant to be a writer; even when you know you have achieved nothing yourself and are still achieving nothing, this is not as terrible as it might otherwise be, because Tolstoy achieves for everyone. What he does serves to justify all the hopes and aspirations invested in literature." The 19th-century British poet and critic Matthew Arnold asserted that "A novel by Tolstoy is not a work of art but a piece of life." Isaac Babel famously stated that "if the world could write by itself, it would write like Tolstoy."

Subsequent novelists consistently acknowledged Tolstoy's artistic merit, though some also voiced critical perspectives. Arthur Conan Doyle, for instance, noted, "I am attracted by his earnestness and by his power of detail, but I am repelled by his looseness of construction and by his unreasonable and impracticable mysticism." Virginia Woolf declared him "the greatest of all novelists." James Joyce observed, "He is never dull, never stupid, never tired, never pedantic, never theatrical!" Thomas Mann commented on Tolstoy's seemingly artless creativity, stating, "Seldom did art work so much like nature." Vladimir Nabokov lauded The Death of Ivan Ilyich and Anna Karenina with superlatives, yet he expressed reservations about the standing of War and Peace and vehemently critiqued Resurrection and The Kreutzer Sonata. Despite these criticisms, Nabokov ultimately proclaimed Tolstoy the "greatest Russian writer of prose fiction." Critic Harold Bloom referred to Hadji Murat as "my personal touchstone for the sublime in prose fiction, to me the best story in the world." When William Faulkner was asked to list his three greatest novels, he famously responded, "Anna Karenina, Anna Karenina, and Anna Karenina." Critic Gary Saul Morson also identified War and Peace as the greatest of all novels.

Ethical, political and religious beliefs

Schopenhauer

Following his engagement with Arthur Schopenhauer's The World as Will and Representation, Tolstoy progressively adopted the ascetic morality presented in that text as the appropriate spiritual trajectory for the elite. In 1869, he recorded, "Do you know what this summer has meant for me? Constant raptures over Schopenhauer and a whole series of spiritual delights which I've never experienced before....no student has ever studied so much on his course, and learned so much, as I have this summer."

In Chapter VI of Confession, Tolstoy quoted the concluding paragraph of Schopenhauer's work, which posits that a complete denial of self results only in a relative nothingness that should not be feared. Tolstoy was particularly impressed by the depiction of Christian, Buddhist, and Hindu ascetic renunciation as the path to holiness. Inspired by passages such as the following, which are prevalent in Schopenhauer's ethical chapters, the Russian nobleman subsequently embraced poverty and a formal rejection of the will:

But this very necessity of involuntary suffering (by poor people) for eternal salvation is also expressed by that utterance of the Savior (Matthew 19:24): "It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God." Therefore, those who were greatly in earnest about their eternal salvation, chose voluntary poverty when fate had denied this to them and they had been born in wealth. Thus Buddha Sakyamuni was born a prince, but voluntarily took to the mendicant's staff; and Francis of Assisi, the founder of the mendicant orders who, as a youngster at a ball, where the daughters of all the notabilities were sitting together, was asked: "Now Francis, will you not soon make your choice from these beauties?" and who replied: "I have made a far more beautiful choice!" "Whom?" "La povertà (poverty)": whereupon he abandoned every thing shortly afterwards and wandered through the land as a mendicant.

Christianity

In 1884, Tolstoy authored What I Believe, a work in which he openly articulated his Christian convictions. He affirmed his adherence to Jesus Christ's teachings, being particularly influenced by the Sermon on the Mount and the injunction to turn the other cheek. He interpreted this as a "commandment of non-resistance to evil by force" and a foundational doctrine of pacifism and nonviolence. In his work The Kingdom of God Is Within You, he argued that the Church's doctrine was erroneous, having perpetrated a "perversion" of Christ's original teachings. Tolstoy also corresponded with American Quakers, who introduced him to the non-violence writings of Quaker Christians such as George Fox, William Penn, and Jonathan Dymond. Subsequently, various editions of "Tolstoy's Bible" were published, highlighting the passages Tolstoy most relied upon, specifically the reported words of Jesus himself.

Tolstoy posited that genuine Christians could achieve enduring happiness by striving for inner perfection through adherence to the Great Commandment of loving one's neighbor and God, rather than seeking guidance from ecclesiastical or state authorities. Another distinctive element of his philosophy, derived from Christ's teachings, is nonresistance during conflict. This concept, elaborated in Tolstoy's book The Kingdom of God Is Within You, directly influenced Mahatma Gandhi and, by extension, nonviolent resistance movements globally.

Tolstoy contended that the aristocracy imposed an undue burden on the impoverished. He advocated against private land ownership and the institution of marriage, instead promoting chastity and sexual abstinence, principles explored in Father Sergius and his preface to The Kreutzer Sonata, and notably shared by the young Gandhi. The profound intensity of Tolstoy's rigorous moral convictions is evident throughout his later literary contributions. A notable illustration is the depiction of Sergius's temptation in Father Sergius. Maxim Gorky recounted an instance where Tolstoy, while reading this particular passage to Gorky and Chekhov, was visibly moved to tears. Other compelling sections include the personal crises experienced by the protagonists in The Death of Ivan Ilyich and Master and Man, where the former's central character and the latter's reader confront the futility of the protagonists' existences.

In 1886, Tolstoy corresponded with the Russian explorer and anthropologist Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay, recognized as an early proponent against polygenism, the theory positing that human races constitute distinct species. He stated: "You were the first to demonstrate unequivocally through your experience that humanity is universally consistent, representing a benevolent, sociable entity with whom interaction ought to be fostered through compassion and veracity, rather than through force or intoxicants."

Christian Anarchism

Tolstoy significantly shaped the evolution of Christian anarchist philosophy. His conviction that Christianity necessitated pacifism, coupled with the perceived inevitability of governmental warfare, led to his classification as a philosophical anarchist. The Tolstoyans, a minor Christian anarchist collective, were established by Tolstoy's associate, Vladimir Chertkov (1854–1936), with the aim of disseminating Tolstoy's religious doctrines. Beginning in 1892, Tolstoy frequently convened with student-activist Vasily Maklakov, who later defended several Tolstoyans; their discussions often centered on the plight of the Doukhobors. Peter Kropotkin, a prominent philosopher, commented on Tolstoy in the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article concerning anarchism:

Though not explicitly identifying as an anarchist, Leo Tolstoy, akin to figures such as Chojecki, Denk, and numerous others from the popular religious movements of the 15th and 16th centuries, adopted an anarchist stance regarding the state and property rights, deriving his conclusions from the overarching principles of Jesus's teachings and the imperative dictates of reason.

Utilizing the full extent of his literary prowess, Tolstoy articulated a potent critique (particularly in The Kingdom of God Is Within You) of the church, the state, and legal systems comprehensively, with a specific focus on contemporary property legislation. He characterized the state as the dominion of the malevolent, sustained by brute force. According to Tolstoy, common robbers pose significantly less danger than an efficiently organized government. He meticulously scrutinized prevailing prejudices regarding the purported benefits bestowed upon humanity by the church, the state, and the current distribution of property, subsequently inferring the principle of nonresistance and the unequivocal denunciation of all warfare from Jesus's teachings.

Nevertheless, his religious arguments are so effectively integrated with insights derived from an impartial observation of contemporary societal ills that the anarchist elements within his writings resonate with both religious and secular audiences.

Across hundreds of essays during the final two decades of his life, Tolstoy consistently reaffirmed the anarchist critique of the state and endorsed works by Kropotkin and Proudhon to his readership, though he repudiated anarchism's advocacy for violent revolutionary methods. In his 1900 essay, "On Anarchy," he articulated: "Anarchists are correct in every aspect: in their rejection of the current order and in their assertion that, absent authority, no greater violence could exist than that perpetrated by authority under prevailing conditions. Their sole error lies in believing that anarchy can be established through revolution. Instead, it will only be realized as an increasing number of individuals no longer require the protection of governmental power... The only enduring revolution is a moral one: the transformation of the inner self." Notwithstanding his reservations regarding anarchist violence, Tolstoy risked disseminating prohibited publications by anarchist thinkers within Russia and personally proofread Kropotkin's "Words of a Rebel," which was illicitly published in St. Petersburg in 1906.

Pacifism

In 1908, Tolstoy articulated his conviction in non-violence as a strategy for India's liberation from colonial governance in his work, A Letter to a Hindu. Mohandas Gandhi encountered this letter in 1909 while developing his activism in South Africa. This prompted Gandhi to initiate correspondence with Tolstoy, seeking confirmation of authorship, which subsequently evolved into an ongoing exchange. Furthermore, Tolstoy's The Kingdom of God Is Within You significantly influenced Gandhi's embrace of nonviolent resistance, a contribution Gandhi recognized in his autobiography by describing Tolstoy as "the greatest apostle of non-violence that the present age has produced". Although their exchange spanned merely a year, from October 1909 until Tolstoy's passing in November 1910, it inspired Gandhi to name his second South African ashram the Tolstoy Colony. Both figures also shared a commitment to vegetarianism, a topic explored in several of Tolstoy's essays.

The Boxer Rebellion stimulated Tolstoy's engagement with Chinese philosophy. A renowned sinophile, he delved into the writings of Confucius and Laozi. Tolstoy authored Chinese Wisdom and various other works concerning China. He engaged in correspondence with the Chinese intellectual Gu Hongming, advocating for China to maintain its agrarian character rather than pursuing reforms akin to those undertaken by Japan. Both Tolstoy and Gu opposed Kang Youwei's Hundred Days' Reform, considering the reform movement to be hazardous. Tolstoy's principles of non-violence influenced the intellectual framework of the Chinese anarchist organization, the Society for the Study of Socialism.

Tolstoy condemned the Eight-Nation Alliance's intervention (which included Russia) in the Boxer Rebellion in China, as well as the Filipino-American War and the Second Boer War. He commended the Boxer Rebellion while severely criticizing the atrocities committed by Russian, German, American, Japanese, and other forces of the Eight-Nation Alliance. Reports of looting, rapes, and murders led him to accuse these troops of widespread slaughter and "Christian brutality." Tolstoy identified Tsar Nicholas II and Kaiser Wilhelm II as the monarchs primarily responsible for these atrocities, characterizing their intervention as "terrible for its injustice and cruelty." Other intellectuals, including Leonid Andreyev and Gorky, also voiced criticism of the conflict. His critique included an epistle titled To the Chinese people. In 1902, he further published an open letter detailing and condemning Nicholas II's actions in China.

Tolstoy also emerged as a significant proponent of the Esperanto movement. Impressed by the pacifist convictions of the Doukhobors, he drew international attention to their persecution following their peaceful protest of burning weapons in 1895. He facilitated the Doukhobors' migration to Canada. Furthermore, he inspired the Mennonites, another religious community holding anti-government and anti-war sentiments. In 1904, Tolstoy denounced the unfolding Russo-Japanese War and corresponded with the Japanese Buddhist priest Soyen Shaku in an unsuccessful effort to issue a joint pacifist declaration.

Georgism

In his later years, Tolstoy engaged extensively with the economic theory and social philosophy of Georgism. He integrated these ideas favorably into works like Resurrection (1899), a book that significantly contributed to his excommunication. Tolstoy expressed profound admiration for Henry George, once remarking, "People do not argue with the teaching of George; they simply do not know it. And it is impossible to do otherwise with his teaching, for he who becomes acquainted with it cannot but agree." He also contributed a preface to George's journal, Social Problems. Both Tolstoy and George opposed private land ownership, which Tolstoy vehemently criticized as the primary income source for the Russian aristocracy. Furthermore, they both rejected the concept of a centrally planned economy.

Given that Georgism necessitates an administrative body for collecting land rent and allocating it to infrastructure, some scholars infer that Tolstoy's adoption of this philosophy diverged from his anarchist principles; however, anarchist interpretations of Georgism have subsequently been advanced. His novel Resurrection, where the nobleman Dmitri Ivanovich Nekhlyudov comprehends that land cannot truly be owned and that all individuals should possess equitable access to its resources and benefits, suggests Tolstoy's alignment with this perspective. Additional works, including Tolstoy's incomplete play The Light that Shines in the Darkness and the short story "How Much Land Does a Man Need?", indicate his endorsement of small, locally governed communities managing collective land rents for public welfare, alongside strong critiques of state institutions like the justice system.

Hunting

Tolstoy's father, an enthusiastic huntsman, introduced him to hunting. From a young age, Tolstoy received training in hunting and subsequently developed a strong passion for the activity. His hunting pursuits included ducks, quail, snipe, woodcock, and otters. For instance, a diary entry from March 23, 1852, records his hunting experience: "the weather was marvellous; went out hunting, rode up and down the undulating country till one. Killed two ducks." Hunting scenes are also featured in his novel War and Peace. After decades of hunting, Tolstoy ceased the practice in the 1880s, becoming a firm opponent due to ethical objections regarding the killing of animals. In 1890, he authored a preface for Vladimir Chertkov's anti-hunting pamphlet, titled Zlaia zabava: Mysli ob okhote (An Evil Pastime: Thoughts about Hunting). Despite his later opposition to hunting, Tolstoy maintained his affection for horse-riding.

Vegetarianism

Tolstoy's initial interest in vegetarianism emerged in 1882, though his transition to a vegetarian diet unfolded as a protracted and incremental process. William Fay (Vladimir Konstantinovich Geins), who visited Tolstoy in the autumn of 1885, played a role in influencing his adoption of vegetarianism. By 1887, Tolstoy occasionally consumed meat, indicating a temporary deviation from a strictly vegetarian regimen. Not until 1890 did Tolstoy fully embrace a strict vegetarian diet, which he reportedly never knowingly abandoned. Sophia, Tolstoy's wife, contended that his vegetarian diet lacked sufficient nourishment and exacerbated his digestive issues; conversely, Tolstoy asserted that his health had improved, not suffered, on this diet. Critics, including I. S. Listovsky, proposed that Tolstoy's literary abilities diminished following his adoption of a meatless diet.

Tolstoy adopted vegetarianism for ethical and spiritual motives, linking a meatless diet with "high moral views on life." He regarded both hunting and meat consumption as morally reprehensible, citing their involvement in unnecessary animal cruelty, and expressed regret for his past practices. In 1891, Chertkov provided Tolstoy with a copy of Howard Williams's book, The Ethics of Diet. His daughters translated the book into Russian, and Tolstoy subsequently authored an introductory essay, "The First Step," which was published in 1893. Within this essay, he recounted a distressing experience observed during a The brutality he witnessed solidified his conviction that meat ought to be excluded from the human diet. He articulated in the essay that meat consumption is "simply immoral, as it involves the performance of an act which is contrary to moral feeling – killing."

While adhering to his vegetarian diet, Tolstoy consumed eggs daily until a friend questioned whether egg consumption constituted taking a life. He responded, "Yes, I ought to have stopped taking eggs. At least from now I shall stop it." By 1903, eggs were eliminated from his diet. Vasily Rozanov, a visitor to Tolstoy, observed that vegetarianism represented a fundamental lifestyle for him; at dinner, while family and guests consumed meat and scrambled eggs, Tolstoy ate kasha. In a letter addressed to A. D. Zutphen, a Dutch medical student, Tolstoy affirmed, "My health not only has not suffered; it has in fact improved significantly since I have given up milk, butter and eggs, as well as sugar, tea, and coffee." Tolstoy characterized his vegetarian diet as comprising oatmeal porridge, whole wheat bread, cabbage or potato soup, buckwheat, a boiled or fried potato, and an apple prune compote.

Death

On November 20, 1910, at the age of 82, Tolstoy succumbed to pneumonia at Astapovo railway station, following a day-long train journey southward.

The stationmaster escorted Tolstoy to his apartment, where his personal physicians administered injections of morphine and camphor. Law enforcement implemented additional security measures to mitigate any potential unrest during the funeral proceedings. Police presence was discreet yet perceptible throughout the funeral, which was attended by two thousand individuals without any reported disturbances. Three choirs performed during the service. In accordance with the family's wishes, no eulogies were delivered, despite requests from 100 students to speak. Some accounts suggest that during his final hours, Tolstoy advocated for love, non-violence, and Georgism to other passengers on the train.

Legacy

While primarily recognized as a Christian anarchist, Tolstoy's concepts and writings significantly influenced various socialist thinkers across historical periods. He maintained a pragmatic, rather than romantic, perspective on governments, viewing them as inherently violent entities sustained by state authority's intimidation, official corruption, and the early indoctrination of citizens. Concerning economic principles, Tolstoy championed a reversion to subsistence agriculture. He posited that a simplified economic system would diminish the necessity for goods exchange, thereby rendering factories and cities—the traditional hubs of industry—obsolete.

In 1944, Nikolai Gudzii, a literary historian and Soviet medievalist, authored an 80-page biography of Tolstoy. This work aimed to demonstrate that Tolstoy would have reconsidered his pacifist and anti-patriotic views had he been alive during World War II. Concurrently, literary scholar and historian Boris Eikhenbaum, diverging significantly from his previous analyses of Tolstoy, depicted the Russian novelist as an individual whose philosophical tenets resonated with those of early utopian socialists like Robert Owen and Henri Saint-Simon. Eikhenbaum posited that these influences were evident in Tolstoy's focus on individual well-being and the welfare of the peasantry. The inconsistencies in Eikhenbaum's interpretations of Tolstoy are attributable to the prevailing political climate in Soviet Russia, where state officials compelled literary scholars to adhere to party ideology.

In Soviet Russia

The Tolstoyan movement emerged from Tolstoy's writings, with its adherents utilizing his works to advocate for non-violence, anti-urbanism, and opposition to state authority. Although Tolstoy himself never formally joined the movement, due to his aversion to organizational affiliations, he designated his thirteenth child, Alexandra (Sasha) L'vovna Tolstaya, as the heir to his literary estate, intending for her to publish his works for the Russian populace. Concurrently, Tolstoy appointed Vladimir Chertkov, who safeguarded numerous of Tolstoy's manuscripts, as the editor of his collected works. Initially, Tolstoy desired to bequeath his writings to the Russian people; however, contemporary Russian law stipulated that property could only be inherited by a single individual.

After the Russian Civil War in 1917, previously censored writings became eligible for publication, as all literary works were nationalized in November 1918. During this period, Alexandra endeavored to publish various sets of Tolstoy's works, collaborating with Zadruga Publishing House from 1917 to 1919 to release thirteen booklets containing Tolstoy's writings that had been suppressed under imperial Russian rule. Nevertheless, the publication of a comprehensive collection of Tolstoy's works presented greater challenges. In December 1918, the Commissariat of Education allocated a 10 million rouble subsidy to Chertkov for the publication of a complete edition of Tolstoy's works; however, this project never materialized owing to governmental control over publication rights. Furthermore, the prohibition of cooperatives in Russia in 1921 introduced an additional impediment for Alexandra and Chertkov.

During the 1920s, the Soviet state authorized Tolstoy's estate, Yasnaya Polyana, to function as a commune for Tolstoyans. The government sanctioned this Christian-oriented community, perceiving religious groups such as the Tolstoyans as exemplary for the Russian peasantry. While the Soviet government owned the estate, designating it a memorial to the deceased Russian writer, Alexandra retained authority over the educational programs provided at Yasnaya Polyana. In contrast to the majority of Soviet schools, the educational curriculum at Yasnaya Polyana excluded militaristic training and the propagation of atheism. However, over time, local communists, distinct from the state government that provided financial support, frequently condemned the estate and demanded regular inspections. Following 1928, a shift in the Soviet regime's cultural policy resulted in the appropriation of local institutions, including Tolstoy's estate. Upon Alexandra's resignation as head of Yasnaya Polyana in 1929, the Commissariat of Education and Health assumed control.

In 1925, the Soviet government established its inaugural Jubilee Committee to commemorate the centennial of Tolstoy's birth. This committee initially comprised 13 members, expanding to 38 following the formation of a second committee in 1927. Alexandra expressed dissatisfaction with the governmental funding and consequently met with Stalin in June 1928. During this meeting, Stalin stated that the government was unable to provide the one million roubles requested by the committee. Nevertheless, an agreement was concluded with the State Publishing House in April 1928 for the publication of a 92-volume collection of Tolstoy's works. At the Jubilee Celebration, Anatoly Lunacharsky, who headed the People's Commissariat for Education, delivered a speech refuting claims that the Soviet government harbored hostility towards Tolstoy and his legacy. Rather than emphasizing elements of Tolstoy's writings that conflicted with the Soviet regime, Lunacharsky highlighted unifying themes, including Tolstoy's advocacy for equality and labor, alongside his critique of the state and private property. Over 400 million copies of Tolstoy's works were printed in the Soviet Union, establishing him as the best-selling author in Soviet Russia.

Influence

Vladimir Lenin authored multiple essays analyzing Tolstoy, positing an inherent contradiction within Tolstoy's critique of Russian society. Lenin contended that while Tolstoy, a fervent admirer of the peasantry and an articulate voice for their grievances against imperial Russian society, offered revolutionary critiques, his political consciousness lacked the full development necessary for a successful revolution. This perspective led Lenin to propose that the 1905 Russian Revolution, which he characterized as a "peasant bourgeois revolution," ultimately failed due to its inherent backwardness, as its proponents sought to dismantle medieval oppressive structures only to substitute them with an antiquated, patriarchal village-commune system. Furthermore, Lenin believed that Tolstoy's principle of nonresistance to evil impeded the 1905 revolution's triumph, attributing this to the movement's lack of militancy, which consequently enabled the autocracy to suppress it. Despite these perceived contradictions in Tolstoy's critical analyses, Lenin ultimately concluded in his works that Tolstoy's profound aversion to feudalism and capitalism served as a precursor to proletarian socialism.

Mahatma Gandhi's political philosophy was significantly influenced by Tolstoy's principle of nonresistance to evil. Gandhi was profoundly affected by Tolstoy's understanding of truth, which he interpreted as any doctrine capable of alleviating suffering. Both Gandhi and Tolstoy equated truth with God, and given that God represents universal love, truth was consequently understood as universal love. The Gujarati term for Gandhi's non-violent movement, satyagraha, originates from sadagraha, where sat signifies "truth" and agraha denotes "firmness." Gandhi's formulation of satyagraha emerged from Tolstoy's interpretation of Christianity, rather than being solely rooted in Hindu tradition.

In film and television

Akira Kurosawa adapted The Death of Ivan Ilyich into the 1952 film Ikiru. This work also served as the foundation for the 2022 film Living, featuring a screenplay by Kazuo Ishiguro. In George Lucas's television series, initially titled The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles and subsequently rebranded as The Adventures of Young Indiana Jones, a fictionalized portrayal of Tolstoy is depicted as a mentor and companion to Indiana Jones. Michael Gough portrayed Tolstoy in the 1996 made-for-television film Travels with Father.

Michael Hoffman directed the 2009 film The Last Station, which chronicles Tolstoy's final year and is based on Jay Parini's 1990 novel; Christopher Plummer starred as Tolstoy, with Helen Mirren portraying Sofya Tolstoya. Both actors received Academy Award nominations for their performances. Additional cinematic portrayals of the author include Departure of a Grand Old Man (1912), produced merely two years after his demise; How Fine, How Fresh the Roses Were (1913); and Lev Tolstoy (1984), directed by and starring Sergei Gerasimov. A notable lost film featuring Tolstoy was created a decade prior to his death. In 1901, American travel lecturer Burton Holmes, accompanied by U.S. Senator and historian Albert J. Beveridge, visited Yasnaya Polyana. During their conversation, Holmes recorded Tolstoy using his 60-mm movie camera. Subsequently, Beveridge's advisors arranged for the film's destruction, concerned that the encounter with the Russian author could negatively impact Beveridge's prospects for the U.S. presidency.

Bibliography

Notes

Citations

• Bayley, John (1997). Leo Tolstoy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-07463-0744-1.
• Bloom, Harold, ed. (2009) [2003]. Leo Tolstoy. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-14381-1328-9.
• Dillon, Emile Joseph (1934). Count Leo Tolstoy: A New Portrait. Hutchinson.
• Moulin, Daniel (2014). Leo Tolstoy. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-14725-0484-5.
• Rowe, William W. (1986). Leo Tolstoy. Twayne Publishers. ISBN 978-08057-6623-3.
• Simmons, Ernest Joseph (1946). Leo Tolstoy. Little, Brown and Company.
• Zorin, Andrei (2020). Leo Tolstoy. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-17891-4256-3.
• Craraft, James. Two Shining Souls: Jane Addams, Leo Tolstoy, and the Quest for Global Peace (Lanham: Lexington, 2012). 179 pp.
• Lednicki, Waclaw (April 1947). "Tolstoy through American Eyes." The Slavonic and East European Review. 25 (65).
• Leon, Derrick (1944). Tolstoy: His Life and Work. London: Routledge.
• Trotsky's 1908 Tribute to Leo Tolstoy. Published by the International Committee of the Fourth International (ICFI).
• The Life of Tolstoy: Later Years by Aylmer Maude. Dodd, Mead and Company, 1911.
• Why We Fail As Christians by Robert Hunter. The Macmillan Company, 1919.
• Nickell, William S. (2011). The Death of Tolstoy: Russia on the Eve, Astapovo Station, 1910. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-6254-2.

• The complete works of Count Tolstoy, comprising 28 volumes, published by Dana Estes & Company.
• Digital editions of works by Leo Tolstoy available through Standard Ebooks.
• Literary works by Leo Tolstoy.
• Publications by or concerning Leo Tolstoy.
• Public domain audiobooks of Leo Tolstoy's works.
• Information about Leo Tolstoy.
• A biographical work titled 'Tolstoy' by Romain Rolland.
• Archived newspaper clippings pertaining to Leo Tolstoy from the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW.
• Wright, Charles Theodore Hagberg (1911). "Tolstoy, Leo" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 1053–1061.Source: TORIma Academy Archive