Cosmopolitanism represents the concept that all human beings are constituents of a singular global community. Proponents of this philosophy are referred to as cosmopolitan or cosmopolite. Cosmopolitanism is both prescriptive and aspirational, positing that individuals can and ought to function as "world citizens" within a "universal community." This concept incorporates various dimensions of communal engagement, including the advocacy of universal ethical principles, the formation of global governance frameworks, or the cultivation of a space for reciprocal cultural articulation and acceptance.
Kwame Anthony Appiah, for instance, elucidates a cosmopolitan community in which individuals from diverse geographical and socioeconomic contexts engage in relationships characterized by mutual esteem, notwithstanding their divergent religious or political convictions. More broadly, and with a related connotation, the term "cosmopolitan" also characterizes environments where individuals of diverse ethnic, cultural, or religious origins coexist and engage in reciprocal interactions.
Etymology
The term originates from the Ancient Greek phrase: κοσμοπολίτης, or kosmopolitês, constituted by "κόσμος," kosmos, meaning "world," "universe," or "cosmos," and πολίτης, "politês," signifying "citizen" or "an inhabitant of a city." In modern discourse, the term is commonly understood as "citizen of the world."
Definitions
Explanations of cosmopolitanism typically commence with the Greek etymology of "citizen of the world." Nevertheless, as Appiah observes, "world" originally denoted "cosmos" or "universe," rather than the terrestrial sphere or globe, as is frequently presumed in contemporary usage.
Kleingeld and Brown differentiate among moral, political, cultural, and economic forms of cosmopolitanism. Within the United States, two distinct manifestations of cosmopolitanism have emerged. One form is a political cosmopolitan nationalism, which has historically delineated and conceptualized other racial groups. Conversely, an ethno-cultural cosmopolitanism, characterized by its embrace of multiculturalism, experienced a resurgence in the United States following World War II. A definition of cosmopolitanism addressing this dichotomy is presented in a recent (2014) publication concerning political globalization:
Cosmopolitanism can be defined as a global politics that, firstly, projects a sociality of common political engagement among all human beings across the globe, and, secondly, suggests that this sociality should be either ethically or organizationally privileged over other forms of sociality.
Philosophical
Philosophical roots
The origins of cosmopolitanism can be attributed to Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412 B.C.E), a foundational figure of Cynicism in Ancient Greece. Reportedly, when questioned about his origin, Diogenes declared: "I am a citizen of the world (kosmopolitês)." During that era, the primary foundation of social identity among the Greeks resided either in the autonomous city-state or within the culturally and linguistically uniform Hellenic collective.
Stoicism, an additional Greek philosophical school established approximately a century subsequently, further developed Diogenes' concept, with numerous proponents emphasizing that every individual "resides [...] within two communities – the localized community of one's origin, and the broader community of human discourse and ambition." Stoic cosmopolitanism is frequently comprehended through Hierocles' concentric circle model of identity, which posits that individuals should perceive themselves as situated within a series of expanding circles: commencing with the self, then encompassing immediate family, extended family, the local community, fellow citizens, compatriots, and ultimately, all of humanity. Within these successive circles, individuals experience a sensation of "affinity" or "endearment" towards others, a concept the Stoics designated as Oikeiôsis. The imperative for global citizens, therefore, is to "somehow draw the circles towards the center, thereby fostering a greater sense of kinship with all human beings, akin to one's fellow city dwellers, and so forth."
The ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi, in extant texts, articulated that "universal love and mutual benefit" could be achieved by "regarding other people's countries as one's own." The Chinese term tianxia (meaning "all under Heaven"), which historically served as a metonym for empire, has been reinterpreted in contemporary discourse as a conceptualization of cosmopolitanism. It was also adopted by modernists in the 1930s as the title for T'ien Hsia Monthly, an English-language journal of global arts and letters published in Shanghai.
Stoicism, the concept of Tianxia, and other cosmopolitan philosophies flourished particularly within universal monarchies, where these ideas were subsequently integrated into policy, thereby fostering some of the most cosmopolitan societies throughout history.
Modern Cosmopolitan Thinkers
In his 1795 essay "Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch," Immanuel Kant introduces the concept of ius cosmopoliticum (cosmopolitan law/right) as a foundational principle for achieving lasting global peace. This cosmopolitan right originates from the premise that all individuals are equal constituents of a universal community. Consequently, cosmopolitan right operates in conjunction with international political rights and the collective, universal rights inherent to humanity.
Kant's cosmopolitan right is intrinsically linked to the principles of universal hospitality and the right of resort. Universal hospitality denotes the entitlement to be received upon entering foreign territory, provided the visitor arrives peacefully. Furthermore, Kant asserts that all individuals possess the fundamental right of resort, which is the prerogative to present oneself in a foreign country. This right of resort stems from Kant's conception of the Earth's surface as inherently communal, thereby reinforcing his arguments for equally shared universal rights among all people.
The philosophical contributions of Emmanuel Levinas, concerning ethics, and Jacques Derrida, regarding hospitality, offer a theoretical framework for understanding interpersonal relationships in daily life, independent of codified laws. Levinas posits that the ethical foundation lies in the imperative to respond to the Other. In *Being for the Other*, he contends that no "universal moral law" exists; rather, ethics arises from the sense of responsibility (encompassing goodness, mercy, and charity) evoked by the vulnerable Other. Central to Levinas's concept is the Other's proximity, where the face of the Other serves as the catalyst for an ethical response.
Derrida, conversely, identifies hospitality as the ethical bedrock, defined as the willingness and propensity to welcome the Other into one's dwelling. He asserts that ethics *is* hospitality. Pure, unconditional hospitality represents an underlying desire that informs the conditional hospitality required in human interactions. The theories of Levinas and Derrida, concerning ethics and hospitality, collectively propose the potential for accepting the Other as distinct yet possessing equal status. Given that isolation is not a viable global alternative, it becomes crucial to deliberate on optimal approaches to these interactions and to ascertain the implications for both self and others, including the conditions of hospitality to impose and the adequacy of one's response to the Other's call.
Derrida, in an interview with Bennington (1997), offered the following summary of "cosmopolitanism":
There is a tradition of cosmopolitanism, and if we had time we could study this tradition, which comes to us from, on the one hand, Greek thought with the Stoics, who have a concept of the 'citizen of the world'. You also have St. Paul in the Christian tradition, also a certain call for a citizen of the world as, precisely, a brother. St. Paul says that we are all brothers, that is sons of God, so we are not foreigners, we belong to the world as citizens of the world; and it is this tradition that we could follow up until Kant for instance, in whose concept of cosmopolitanism we find the conditions for hospitality. But in the concept of the cosmopolitical in Kant there are a number of conditions: first of all you should, of course, welcome the stranger, the foreigner, to the extent that he is a citizen of another country, that you grant him the right to (Derrida cited in Bennington 1997).
A subsequent development in cosmopolitanism emerged following the Second World War. In response to the Holocaust and other egregious atrocities, the concept of crimes against humanity gained widespread acceptance as a category within international law. This development unequivocally demonstrates the emergence and institutionalization of a principle of individual responsibility owed to all of humanity.
Philosophical cosmopolitanism is characterized by moral universalism, positing that all individuals, irrespective of their national or civic affiliations, are subject to identical moral principles. Consequently, distinctions based on nationality, statehood, culture, or societal grouping are deemed ethically inconsequential. Kwame Anthony Appiah is frequently cited as a prominent contemporary exponent of cosmopolitan thought.
A contingent of philosophers and academics posits that the confluence of objective and subjective circumstances characteristic of the current historical epoch—an emergent planetary stage of civilization—cultivates a latent capacity for the development of a global cosmopolitan identity and the potential genesis of a global citizens' movement. Key factors contributing to this planetary phase encompass advancements in accessible telecommunications; the advent of space exploration and the initial visual representations of Earth's vulnerability within the cosmos; the escalating threat of global warming and other ecological perils to collective survival; the establishment of novel international organizations like the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, and the International Criminal Court; the proliferation of transnational corporations and the integration of markets, frequently termed economic globalization; and the rise of global non-governmental organizations and transnational social movements, exemplified by the World Social Forum. While "globalization" is a more prevalent term, its conventional usage often restricts its scope to economic and trade interactions, thereby overlooking the extensive cultural, social, political, environmental, demographic, axiological, and epistemic transformations currently underway.
Contemporary Cosmopolitan Theorists
Thich Nhat Hanh introduces the concept of "Interbeing," a framework for relational living that bears significant parallels to cosmopolitanism. His philosophical tenets are deeply rooted in Buddhist principles, advocating for compassion and understanding to foster harmonious coexistence among all sentient beings and natural elements. He elaborates on the "Mindfulness Training of the Order of Interbeing," which cultivates an awareness of suffering stemming from, though not exclusively limited to, fanaticism, intolerance that impedes compassion and communal harmony, the inculcation of parochial ideologies, the coercive imposition of perspectives, anger, and communication breakdowns. The cultivation of understanding and compassion for others appears to be contingent upon comprehending their suffering and its underlying etiologies. Consequently, assuming responsibility necessitates the recognition and comprehension of suffering, which, in turn, engenders compassion. This iterative process facilitates the acknowledgment of others' inherent humanity.
Various theorists, philosophers, and activists assert that the acknowledgment of suffering is a prerequisite for the cessation of violence. In his work, Scared Sacred, Velcrow Ripper embarks on an exploration of various locations marked by profound suffering, a journey that culminates in the development of compassion. Paul Gilroy, in "The Planet," investigates the mechanisms by which the social construction and naturalization of racial categories, alongside the hierarchies generated by perceived differences, contribute to animosity towards others. He posits that the dismantling of these ideologies is instrumental in fostering compassion and the humanization of individuals. Consequently, individual responsibility entails an awareness of what Judith Butler terms the "precariousness of life" in both oneself and others, suggesting that cosmopolitanism fundamentally constitutes a social and ethical undertaking.
In his seminal work, Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers, Kwame Anthony Appiah observes a common operational principle in social ethics: obligations towards others, particularly foreign individuals, typically do not override duties owed to those with whom one shares greater familiarity. Judith Butler, however, critically interrogates this stance, asking, "at what cost do I establish the familiar as the criterion" for evaluating others? She further probes the implications of prioritizing the familiar over the foreign. Paul Gilroy proposes an alternative perspective to this prioritization of familiarity, contending that "methodical cultivation of a degree of estrangement from one's own culture and history ... might qualify as essential to a cosmopolitan commitment." Such estrangement, he explains, involves a "process of exposure to otherness" designed to cultivate an appreciation for "the irreducible value of diversity within sameness."
Paul Gilroy conceptualizes cosmopolitanism as encompassing both social-ethical and cultural dimensions. In his work, "The Planet," Gilroy presents Tom Hurndall and Rachel Corrie as emblematic figures of the cosmopolitan ideal. These individuals geographically distanced themselves from their native cultures, ostensibly achieving both physical and mental estrangement from their origins and histories. Both Hurndall and Corrie tragically died in separate incidents in 2003. However, Gilroy's framework of estrangement may be self-defeating when examined through these examples, potentially highlighting a deficiency in his theory to adequately address the practical challenges inherent in detaching oneself from familiar contexts.
The Venus Project, an international and multidisciplinary educational organization founded by Jacque Fresco, actively promotes cosmopolitan ideals. It achieves this by advocating for the transcendence of artificial divisions that currently segment humanity and by underscoring the fundamental interdependence among individuals and with nature.
Certain interpretations of cosmopolitanism have been criticized for inadequately addressing the potential for economic colonization, where powerful nations exert control over less powerful ones. Frantz Fanon, in The Wretched of the Earth, noted that newly independent nations, emerging from European colonial rule, often lacked the infrastructure to secure their economic futures. He contended that these nations frequently became "manager[s] for Western enterprise," effectively transforming their countries into "the brothel of Europe." When developing nations engage in economic partnerships with global capital, ostensibly to enhance national living standards, the benefits often accrue primarily to influential individuals rather than the nation as a whole. Furthermore, some scholars emphasize the necessity of transcending Western liberal values. Drawing from classical realism, these perspectives argue that liberalism is insufficient to foster equality among nations or to disrupt the inherent competitive dynamics between states, instead advocating for insights from Byzantine and other pre-modern cultures. Similarly, Mahmood Mamdani, in Good Muslim, Bad Muslim, posits that the historical imposition of Western cultural norms, including democracy and Christianity, has frequently instigated nationalist violence. Conversely, Appiah has suggested that democracy constitutes a fundamental prerequisite for cosmopolitan intervention in developing countries.
For the past two centuries, a significant portion of political thought has presupposed the existence of nationalism and the sovereign nation-state framework. However, with the progression of globalization and the enhanced ease of travel and communication, some theorists contend that the nation-state-centric political system is now obsolete, necessitating the development of a superior and more efficient alternative. Jesús Mosterín investigates the optimal organization of a global political system to maximize both individual freedom and opportunity. He dismisses the metaphysical concept of free will as ambiguous, instead concentrating on political freedom, defined as the absence of coercion or external interference in personal choices. Acknowledging inherent human tendencies towards violence and aggression, Mosterín recognizes that certain limitations on freedom are essential for fostering peaceful and productive social interactions.
Mosterín specifically argues against any rational justification for restricting cultural freedoms—such as those pertaining to language, religion, and customs—under the guise of national, ecclesiastical, or partisan interests. From this perspective, the Internet serves as a considerably more appealing model than the nation-state. Furthermore, he asserts that no legitimate basis exists for impeding the unrestricted movement of people, ideas, or goods. Mosterín posits that the nation-state fundamentally conflicts with the complete realization of freedom, which he believes necessitates a global political system restructured along cosmopolitan principles. He envisions a world devoid of sovereign nation-states, instead organized territorially into small, autonomous, yet non-sovereign cantonal polities, supported by robust international organizations.
Charles Blattberg critiques the abstract character prevalent in many forms of cosmopolitanism, contending that any effective cosmopolitan framework must be "rooted." He defines this "rootedness" as being founded upon a concept of "global patriotism."
Further philosophical examinations of cosmopolitanism and multiculturalism are also available. Carol Nicholson, for instance, contrasts John Searle's opposition to multiculturalism with Charles Taylor's endorsement of it. She employs Richard Rorty as a point of triangulation, noting his neutrality on multiculturalism while demonstrating how his philosophical analyses of truth and practice can be leveraged to critique Searle and support Taylor. At a conference titled "Philosophy in a Multicultural Context," Rasmus Winther explored the philosophical presuppositions and practices associated with both cosmopolitanism and multiculturalism, expanding upon Bruno Latour's conceptualization of the philosopher as a public diplomat.
Political and Sociological Perspectives
Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) observed the emergence of what he termed the 'cult of the individual,' a nascent religion replacing declining Christianity, centered on the sanctity of human dignity. This new religious framework was posited to establish the foundational principles of Western society, intrinsically linked to human rights and the constitutions of individual nations. Durkheim argued that the sacred object of society would become individual human dignity, with the moral code derived from each country's interpretation of human dignity and human rights. Consequently, societal cohesion would stem not from national culture or specific traditional religious doctrines, but from adherence to political values, specifically individual rights and the defense of human dignity. Durkheim's 'cult of the individual' shares notable parallels with John Rawls' political liberalism, a theory developed nearly a century later.
In his posthumously published work (1957), "Professional Ethics and Civic Morals," Durkheim articulated that:
If each State had as its chief aim not to expand or to lengthen its borders, but to set its own house in order and to make the widest appeal to its members for a moral life on an ever-higher level, then all discrepancy between national and human morals would be excluded. … The more societies concentrate their energies inwards, on the interior life, the more they will be diverted from the disputes that bring a clash between cosmopolitanism – or world patriotism, and patriotism … Societies can have their pride, not in being the greatest or the wealthiest, but in being the most just, the best organised and in possessing the best moral constitution.
Ulrich Beck (May 15, 1944 – January 1, 2015), a prominent sociologist, introduced the concept of cosmopolitan critical theory as a direct counterpoint to traditional nation-state politics. While nation-state theory primarily analyzes power dynamics among distinct state actors, often marginalizing or subordinating the global economy to the nation-state paradigm, cosmopolitanism views global capital as a potential threat to the nation-state. It situates global capital within a meta-power framework where global capital, states, and civil society function as key participants.
It is crucial to differentiate Beck's cosmopolitanism from the notion of a world state. Beck considered the imposition of a singular world order to be, at best, hegemonic and, at worst, ethnocentric. Instead, his political and sociological cosmopolitanism is predicated upon these fundamental principles:
- Acknowledging the distinctiveness of culturally diverse individuals.
- Recognizing the inherent otherness of the future.
- Appreciating the distinct nature of the environment.
- Acknowledging the alterity of objects.
- Recognizing the diversity of other rationalities.
Several philosophers, including Emmanuel Levinas, have advanced the concept of the "Other." For Levinas, the "Other" is contextualized within ethics and responsibility, understood as anyone and everyone external to oneself. According to Levinas, initial interactions with the "Other" precede the formation of individual will, which is the capacity for making choices. The "Other" addresses individuals, eliciting a response—even the absence of a response constitutes one. Consequently, individuals are conditioned by the "Other's" address, initiating the formation of culture and identity. Subsequent to the development of will, individuals choose whether to align with the addresses from others, thereby continuing the process of identity formation.
This process facilitates self-recognition through interactions with others. Even in minimal engagements, individuals attribute identities to both themselves and others. The continuous formation of language, culture, and identity relies on this interdependence, establishing mutual responsibility. The development of individual will enables the acknowledgment of this social interconnectedness. Once the capacity for recognition is achieved, it becomes an ethical imperative to exercise it, thereby fostering conscientious responsibility towards others.
Cosmopolitanism aligns with certain universalist principles, particularly the globally accepted concept of human dignity, which necessitates protection and enshrinement in international law. Nevertheless, the theory diverges by acknowledging the distinct differences among global cultures.
Furthermore, cosmopolitanism advocates for equitable environmental protection and mitigation of adverse technological impacts. The concept of human dignity, however, presents complexities, requiring an initial determination of who merits respect and a subsequent assessment of which rights are defensible. While cosmopolitanism posits that all humans possess rights, historical evidence indicates that the universal recognition of these rights remains uncertain.
Judith Butler, in Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence, exemplifies this by analyzing a Western discourse surrounding the term "human." Butler argues that the concept of "human" has been "naturalized in its 'Western' mold by the contemporary workings of humanism" (32). This perspective implies that not all human lives receive equivalent support, suggesting that some are deemed more deserving of protection than others. Scholars have further expanded this notion to explore how animals could be reconceptualized as cosmopolitan, exhibiting diverse identities across various global contexts.
Sunera Thobani reinforces this concept in "Exalted Subjects: Studies in the Making of Race and Nation in Canada," where she examines a discourse that categorizes Muslim individuals into a binary of "good" or "bad." A "good Muslim" is defined as someone who has assimilated Western norms, whereas a "bad Muslim" overtly rejects Western cultural influences. Thobani asserts that media representations play a crucial role in naturalizing these distinctions. Consequently, individuals adopting Western ideals are often perceived as fully "human" and are more likely to receive dignity and protection than those who uphold their non-Western cultural identities.
Proponents of Beck's framework envision a cosmopolitan global order comprising multiple states. These states would leverage global and regional consensus to enhance their negotiating strength against adversaries. Furthermore, they would harness the influence of civil society actors, including non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and consumers, to bolster their legitimacy and secure investor support for advancing a cosmopolitan agenda.
Conversely, other scholars conceptualize a cosmopolitan world transcending the contemporary nation-state model. They contend that a genuine cosmopolitan identity, integrated within global citizenship, will emerge, thereby reducing the salience of national identities. The emergence of a global citizens' movement could facilitate the creation of democratic global institutions, fostering a platform for worldwide political discourse and decision-making, which would subsequently reinforce the concept of global citizenship. A cosmopolitan political order would thus be founded upon nested governance structures, balancing the principles of irreducibility (where certain issues, like global warming, necessitate global solutions) and subsidiarity (where decisions are ideally made at the most localized level possible).
Daniele Archibugi introduces institutional cosmopolitanism as a revised paradigm for global citizenship. This model advocates for reforms in global governance to enable direct participation of world citizens in political processes. Various proposals have been advanced to achieve this objective. For instance, cosmopolitan democracy suggests reinforcing the United Nations and other international organizations through the establishment of a World Parliamentary Assembly.
Non-Western Perspectives
Vazha-Pshavela
The 1905 essay «კოსმოპოლიტიზმი და პატრიოტიზმი» (Kosmopolitizmi da Patriotizmi; "Cosmopolitanism and Patriotism"), initially published in the Tbilisi literary periodical Droeba, features Georgian poet and public intellectual Vazha-Pshavela (Luka Razikashvili; 1861–1915) attempting to harmonize national identity with universal human solidarity. He differentiated between an emotional bond to one's native country and a rational dedication to humanity broadly, positing that these two concepts are mutually reinforcing rather than contradictory.
Vazha-Pshavela articulated that "cosmopolitanism is a matter of the brain, patriotism is a matter of the heart," emphasizing that "your neighbor's misery is your own" to underscore that genuine patriotism necessitates concern for all individuals. He condemned those who disavow their national heritage under the pretext of universalism, stating, "He who negates his country while calling himself cosmopolitan is maimed by illusions." Furthermore, he contended that a nation's commitment to cosmopolitan ideals is reflected in its treatment of internal minorities, cautioning that "the man who scorns the stranger among his own people wears blinders against humanity."
Addressing practical implications, Vazha-Pshavela asserted that inventions and discoveries originating within a single nation "benefit all humanity," and that "an invention confined to its birthplace is an invention half-born." This perspective championed the unrestricted dissemination of technological and cultural advancements internationally. He also lauded cultural exchange, observing that no literary or artistic talent can thrive in isolation and that external influences "blossom new flowers in our own garden," thereby augmenting national traditions instead of diminishing them.
Vazha-Pshavela additionally concluded that "the separate development of nations is the condition for the development of all humanity," highlighting cultural diversity as essential for global advancement. His essay partially addressed intellectual trends prevalent in the late Russian Empire and among Georgian Marxists, who frequently favored international class solidarity over distinct national identities. Contemporary academics regard his writings as an early expression of rooted cosmopolitanism, a framework that upholds global ethical obligations while simultaneously maintaining local identity.
Criticism
The concept of "cosmopolitanism" evolved into a rhetorical instrument employed by nationalists to oppose "alien" ideologies that diverged from established orthodoxy. European Jews, in particular, were often labeled "rootless cosmopolitans." In a 1946 Moscow address, Joseph Stalin denounced texts where "the positive Soviet hero is derided and inferior before all things foreign and cosmopolitanism that we all fought against from the time of Lenin, characteristic of the political leftovers, is many times applauded."
Within the German Democratic Republic, cosmopolitanism was defined as a bourgeois-imperialist ideology that repudiated nations' rights to independence and national sovereignty. It was asserted that cosmopolitanism encouraged the dissolution of national and patriotic traditions and cultural heritage. This ideology was purportedly championed by Anglo-American imperialism, aiming to establish global hegemony (a World Government) in service of monopoly capitalism. Its antithesis was not chauvinistic bourgeois nationalism, but rather patriotism: an affection for one's native land and country. This love of homeland was considered a profound sentiment among the working populace, manifested through resistance against conquerors and oppressors. Television journalist Jeff Greenfield suggests that in the 21st century, Vladimir Putin perceived cosmopolitanism as a menace to Russian nationalism, a view shared by nationalists in Hungary and Poland. More recently, Stephen Miller, a senior policy advisor in the Trump administration, publicly accused CNN reporter Jim Acosta of demonstrating "cosmopolitan bias" during a debate concerning the government's revised immigration policy.
Critics of cosmopolitanism contend that contemporary cosmopolitan initiatives frequently falter, not due to global disorder or inadequate moral ambition, but rather because their transformative objectives disrupt established social and political frameworks, thereby instigating profound disputes concerning hierarchy and acknowledgment. Attempts to universalize human affiliation consistently produce "hierarchy legitimation conflicts" and "recognition struggles," which, particularly during periods of instability, tend to reinforce state sovereignty and exclusive national identities instead of transcending them. The confluence of modern power configurations, deeply rooted forms of political allegiance, and the formidable institutional and social prerequisites for legitimizing novel global authorities renders a cosmopolitan order conceptually feasible but practically unachievable. Across diverse iterations, including Kantian, Marxian, postcolonial, and ecological perspectives, cosmopolitan ideals have incited counter-mobilizations that inadvertently reconfigure international society, demonstrating how universalist endeavors frequently clash with geopolitical competition, identity politics, and asymmetrical power dynamics. Collectively, these critical analyses depict cosmopolitanism as a recurrent yet precarious construct, grounded in authentic aspirations for justice, but continually subverted by the societal forces and political realities inherent in contemporary international life.
Bibliographical Citations
References
The entry on "Cosmopolitanism" authored by Pauline Kleingeld and Eric Brown, featured in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
- "Cosmopolitanism" entry by Pauline Kleingeld, Eric Brown in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy