Existentialism represents a diverse philosophical tradition and field of inquiry that investigates the individual's endeavor to achieve an authentic existence amidst the perceived absurdity or inherent incomprehensibility of being. Central to its examination of meaning, purpose, and value, existentialist discourse frequently incorporates notions such as existential crises, angst, courage, and freedom.
Existentialism is linked to various European philosophers of the 19th and 20th centuries who, despite significant intellectual divergences, collectively prioritized the human subject. Notable 19th-century figures retrospectively identified with existentialism include philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche, alongside novelist Fyodor Dostoevsky. Each of these thinkers challenged rationalism and explored the fundamental question of meaning. Nevertheless, the term existentialism itself emerged only in the mid-20th century, at which point it became predominantly linked with contemporary philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre, Martin Heidegger, Simone de Beauvoir, Karl Jaspers, Gabriel Marcel, Paul Tillich, and, more controversially, Albert Camus.
Numerous existentialist thinkers perceived traditional systematic or academic philosophies as excessively abstract and detached from tangible human experience, both in their methodology and subject matter. Authenticity constitutes a cardinal virtue within existentialist philosophy. Beyond philosophy, existentialism exerted considerable influence across various disciplines, encompassing theology, drama, art, literature, and psychology.
While existentialist philosophy embraces diverse viewpoints, it is unified by several foundational concepts. Foremost among these is the core tenet that personal freedom, individual responsibility, and intentional choice are indispensable for the process of self-discovery and the articulation of life's meaning.
Etymology
The designation existentialism (French: L'existentialisme) was originated by the French Catholic philosopher Gabriel Marcel during the mid-1940s. Initially, when Marcel attributed the term to Jean-Paul Sartre at a 1945 colloquium, Sartre disavowed it. However, Sartre later reconsidered, publicly embracing the existentialist appellation on October 29, 1945, during a lecture at the Club Maintenant in Paris. This lecture was subsequently published as L'existentialisme est un humanisme (Existentialism Is a Humanism), a concise volume instrumental in disseminating existentialist ideas. Marcel himself eventually renounced the label, preferring Neo-Socratic, a choice made in homage to Kierkegaard's essay "On the Concept of Irony".
Certain scholars contend that the term should exclusively denote the European cultural movement of the 1940s and 1950s, linked to the writings of philosophers such as Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and Albert Camus. Conversely, other academics broaden its application to include Kierkegaard, with some even tracing its conceptual roots to Socrates. Nevertheless, the term is frequently synonymous with Sartre's philosophical tenets.
Definitional Issues and Background
The designations existentialism and existentialist are frequently regarded as historical constructs, given that they were retrospectively applied to numerous philosophers posthumously. Although existentialism is widely believed to have originated with Kierkegaard, Sartre was the first notable existentialist philosopher to explicitly embrace the term as a self-identifier. Sartre advanced the concept that "what all existentialists have in common is the fundamental doctrine that existence precedes essence," a point elucidated by philosopher Frederick Copleston. Philosopher Steven Crowell notes the inherent difficulty in defining existentialism, suggesting it is more accurately characterized as a broad methodological stance rejecting specific systematic philosophies, rather than a systematic philosophy in its own right. During a 1945 lecture, Sartre characterized existentialism as "the attempt to draw all the consequences from a position of consistent atheism." Conversely, some interpretations suggest that existentialism does not necessarily entail the rejection of God, but instead "examines mortal man's search for meaning in a meaningless universe," shifting the focus from "What constitutes the good life?" (in terms of feeling, being, or doing good) to "What is the purpose of life?".
While numerous non-Scandinavian scholars attribute the origin of the term existentialism to Kierkegaard, it is more probable that Kierkegaard derived this term (or at minimum, the descriptor "existential" for his philosophy) from the Norwegian poet and literary critic Johan Sebastian Cammermeyer Welhaven. This claim is supported by two distinct sources:
- Norwegian philosopher Erik Lundestad references Danish philosopher Fredrik Christian Sibbern, who reportedly engaged in two conversations in 1841: one with Welhaven and another with Kierkegaard. During the initial discussion, Welhaven is believed to have articulated a concept, which he described as "existential," encompassing a close and positive orientation toward life. Sibbern subsequently conveyed this concept to Kierkegaard.
- A second assertion originates from Norwegian historian Rune Slagstad, who claims to have demonstrated that Kierkegaard himself acknowledged borrowing the term existential from the poet. Slagstad strongly contends that Kierkegaard stated: "Hegelians do not study philosophy 'existentially;' to use a phrase by Welhaven from one time when I spoke with him about philosophy."
Concepts
Existence Precedes Essence
Jean-Paul Sartre argued that a fundamental proposition of existentialism is that existence precedes essence. This principle asserts that individuals define themselves through their lived experiences and cannot be understood through preconceived or a priori categories, which constitute an "essence." Consequently, an individual's actual life forms their "true essence," rather than an arbitrarily assigned essence used by others to define them. Through their consciousness, human beings create their own values and determine the meaning of their lives. This perspective directly contradicts the teachings of Aristotle and Aquinas, who maintained that essence precedes individual existence. Although Sartre explicitly coined this phrase, analogous notions are discernible in the philosophies of other existentialist thinkers, such as Heidegger and Kierkegaard:
The subjective thinker's form, the form of his communication, is his style. His form must be just as manifold as are the opposites that he holds together. The systematic eins, zwei, drei is an abstract form that also must inevitably run into trouble whenever it is to be applied to the concrete. To the same degree as the subjective thinker is concrete, to that same degree his form must also be concretely dialectical. But just as he himself is not a poet, not an ethicist, not a dialectician, so also his form is none of these directly. His form must first and last be related to existence, and in this regard he must have at his disposal the poetic, the ethical, the dialectical, the religious. Subordinate character, setting, etc., which belong to the well-balanced character of the esthetic production, are in themselves breadth; the subjective thinker has only one setting—existence—and has nothing to do with localities and such things. The setting is not the fairyland of the imagination, where poetry produces consummation, nor is the setting laid in England, and historical accuracy is not a concern. The setting is inwardness in existing as a human being; the concretion is the relation of the existence-categories to one another. Historical accuracy and historical actuality are breadth.
While some interpret the imperative to define oneself as implying an unrestricted capacity for self-determination, an existentialist philosopher would contend that such a desire constitutes an inauthentic existence, which Sartre termed "bad faith." Instead, the phrase should be understood to mean that individuals are defined solely by their actions and are thus responsible for them. For instance, an individual who acts cruelly toward others is, by that very act, defined as a cruel person. Such individuals are themselves accountable for their emergent identity, rather than attributing blame to genetic predispositions or human nature.
As articulated by Sartre in his lecture Existentialism is a Humanism: "Man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world—and defines himself afterwards." This statement inherently implies a more positive and therapeutic dimension: an individual possesses the agency to choose alternative courses of action, thereby transforming into a benevolent person instead of a cruel one.
Jonathan Webber posits that Sartre's application of the term essence should be understood not as a set of necessary features (a modal interpretation), but rather as a teleological construct: "an essence is the relational property of having a set of parts ordered in such a way as to collectively perform some activity." For instance, the fundamental nature of a house involves its capacity to provide shelter from adverse weather, necessitating the presence of walls and a roof. In contrast, human beings diverge from this model; unlike inanimate structures, they possess no inherent, predetermined purpose. Instead, individuals are at liberty to select their own objectives, thereby constructing their own essence. Consequently, their existence precedes their essence.
Sartre espoused a profound and radical understanding of freedom, asserting that human purpose is self-determined, and individual projects derive their significance and momentum solely from personal affirmation. Conversely, Simone de Beauvoir contended that a multitude of influences, collectively termed sedimentation, impede efforts to alter one's life trajectory. These sedimentations originate from prior decisions and, while amenable to modification through present choices, undergo transformation gradually. They represent an inertial force that molds an individual's evaluative perspective on existence until a complete shift is achieved.
Sartre's formulation of existentialism drew significantly from Heidegger's seminal work, Being and Time (published in 1927). However, in his subsequent correspondence with Jean Beaufret, compiled as the Letter on Humanism, Heidegger suggested that Sartre had misinterpreted his philosophy, adapting it to serve a subjectivist agenda. Heidegger clarified that he did not intend to assert the primacy of actions over being, particularly when such actions lacked reflective consideration. Heidegger critically remarked that "the reversal of a metaphysical statement remains a metaphysical statement," indicating his belief that Sartre had merely inverted the conventional hierarchy of essence and existence without a thorough examination of these concepts or their historical development.
The Concept of the Absurd
The philosophical concept of the absurd posits that the universe inherently lacks meaning, beyond that which humanity confers upon it. This inherent meaninglessness extends to the amorality or perceived injustice of existence. This perspective stands in stark contrast to traditional Abrahamic religious doctrines, which typically assert that life's purpose is derived from adherence to divine commandments. Embracing an absurd existence entails a rejection of the search for or discovery of a predetermined, inherent meaning in human life, given its absence. Albert Camus argued that neither the world nor the human being is intrinsically absurd. Instead, absurdity arises from the fundamental incongruity between humanity's innate desire for meaning and the universe's indifferent silence. This interpretation represents one of two prominent understandings of the absurd within existentialist discourse. The alternative perspective, initially articulated by Søren Kierkegaard, confines absurdity to human actions and decisions. Such actions are deemed absurd because they originate from human freedom, thereby lacking any external, objective grounding.
The concept of the absurd directly challenges the assertion that adverse events exclusively befall individuals deemed 'bad'. From the perspective of an indifferent universe, moral distinctions such as 'good' or 'bad' individuals are irrelevant; events simply occur, indiscriminately affecting anyone. This inherent absurdity implies that unpredictable occurrences can impact any individual at any moment, potentially thrusting them into a profound encounter with the absurd through a tragic experience. Numerous literary contributions from authors such as Kierkegaard, Beckett, Kafka, Dostoevsky, Ionesco, Miguel de Unamuno, Luigi Pirandello, Sartre, Joseph Heller, and Camus depict characters grappling with the world's inherent absurdity.
The profound realization of life's inherent meaninglessness led Camus to assert in The Myth of Sisyphus that "There is only one truly serious philosophical problem, and that is suicide." While proposed solutions to mitigate the potentially detrimental effects of such existential confrontations differ—ranging from Kierkegaard's religious "stage" to Camus' advocacy for perseverance despite absurdity—a shared objective among most existentialist philosophers is to guide individuals away from lifestyles that risk the perpetual collapse of all perceived meaning. This potential disintegration of meaning presents a risk of quietism, a state fundamentally antithetical to existentialist thought. It is often posited that the contemplation of suicide inherently renders all individuals existentialists. The quintessential absurdist hero embraces a life devoid of inherent meaning and confronts the prospect of suicide without yielding to it.
Facticity
Sartre, in Being and Nothingness (1943), defines facticity as the in-itself, which manifests for humans as both being and non-being. It encompasses the concrete circumstances of an individual's life and, according to Heidegger, represents "the way in which we are thrown into the world." This concept becomes clearer when examining facticity in the context of an individual's past, as one's history shapes the person existing in the present. Nevertheless, reducing an individual solely to their past disregards the transformative processes occurring in the present and future; conversely, asserting that one's past merely represents what one *was* would completely sever its connection to the current self. Denying one's concrete past leads to an inauthentic existence, a principle that extends to other facets of facticity, such as possessing a human body with its inherent limitations, one's identity, and values.
Facticity functions as both a constraint upon and a prerequisite for freedom. It imposes limitations because a significant portion of an individual's facticity comprises unchosen elements (e.g., birthplace); yet, it simultaneously serves as a condition for freedom, as one's values are often contingent upon these very factors. Nonetheless, despite its fixed nature, facticity does not dictate an individual's essence; individuals retain the agency to ascribe varying degrees of significance to their own facticity. For instance, consider two individuals: one with no recollection of his past, and another who remembers every detail. Both have committed numerous offenses. However, the first individual, lacking memory, leads a relatively conventional life, whereas the second, perceiving himself as ensnared by his past, persists in criminal behavior, attributing blame to his history. His criminal acts are not inherently determined, but he chooses to imbue his past with this particular meaning.
Conversely, neglecting one's facticity during the development of self-identity constitutes a denial of the formative conditions of the present self, leading to inauthenticity. An illustration of focusing exclusively on potential endeavors without considering one's present facticity involves persistently contemplating future prospects of wealth (e.g., acquiring a superior vehicle, a larger residence, or an enhanced quality of life) while failing to acknowledge the facticity of not currently having the financial means to do so. Within this context, an authentic mode of existence, integrating both facticity and transcendence, would involve contemplating future projects aimed at improving one's current financial situation (e.g., working additional hours or investing savings) to achieve a tangible future, or future-facticity, such as a modest salary increase, which could then facilitate the purchase of an affordable automobile.
Furthermore, facticity inherently involves angst. Freedom engenders angst when constrained by facticity, and the absence of facticity's capacity to assume responsibility for one's actions similarly generates this existential dread.
A further dimension of existential freedom is the capacity for individuals to alter their own values. Individuals bear responsibility for their values, irrespective of societal norms. Existentialism's emphasis on freedom is intrinsically linked to the scope of responsibility an individual assumes as a consequence of that freedom. The relationship between freedom and responsibility is characterized by mutual dependency; thus, a precise understanding of freedom simultaneously elucidates the domains for which one is accountable.
Authenticity
Prominent existentialist thinkers emphasize the significance of authentic existence, which posits that individuals must actively "create themselves" and align their lives with this self-conception. Authenticity necessitates acting as one's true self, rather than being dictated by external factors such as one's actions, genetic predispositions, or any other predetermined essence. An authentic act is inherently congruent with one's freedom. While facticity—the given circumstances of one's existence—is an element of freedom, it must not unilaterally determine transcendent choices, thereby precluding the attribution of responsibility for one's chosen projects to one's background. In the context of authenticity, facticity entails making choices based on one's genuine values, in contrast to arbitrary selections (such as those exemplified by Kierkegaard's Aesthete), thereby fostering personal accountability for one's actions rather than indecisively weighing options without assigning them distinct values.
Conversely, inauthenticity represents a refusal to embrace one's inherent freedom. This denial manifests in various ways, including the pretense that choices are devoid of meaning or are purely random, the conviction that some form of determinism governs existence, or through "mimicry," wherein an individual conforms to prescribed societal roles or expectations.
The prescribed manner in which one "should" act is frequently dictated by a preconceived image associated with a particular social role, such as a bank manager, a lion tamer, or a sex worker. In Being and Nothingness, Sartre illustrates this concept with the example of a waiter acting in "bad faith," who merely performs the "act" of a typical waiter with convincing proficiency. While this idealized image often aligns with social norms, it is crucial to note that not all adherence to social conventions constitutes inauthenticity. The fundamental distinction lies in an individual's disposition toward their own freedom and responsibility, and the degree to which their actions genuinely reflect this freedom.
The Other and the Gaze
The concept of the Other, conventionally capitalized, primarily originates within phenomenology and its exploration of intersubjectivity. Nevertheless, it has been extensively adopted in existentialist discourse, albeit with conclusions that diverge somewhat from purely phenomenological interpretations. The Other denotes the apprehension of another autonomous subject coexisting within the same world as oneself. Fundamentally, this encounter with the Other establishes both intersubjectivity and objectivity. Specifically, when an individual perceives another person, and this Other, in turn, perceives the identical world—albeit from a distinct perspective—the world attains objective status, being recognized as a shared reality for both subjects. Consequently, one experiences the Other as perceiving the same phenomena. This experiential encounter with the Other's perception is designated as the Look, or sometimes the Gaze.
Although this fundamental phenomenological experience establishes the world as objective and oneself as an objectively existing subjectivity—where one perceives oneself as observed by the Other's Gaze in the same manner one perceives the Other as a subjectivity—in existentialism, it simultaneously functions as a constraint on freedom. This limitation arises because the Gaze inherently tends to objectify its subject. When an individual experiences themselves under the Gaze, they are perceived not as an indeterminate "nothing," but as a concrete "something." Sartre's illustrative example involves a man clandestinely observing someone through a keyhole. Initially, the man is wholly immersed in his activity, existing in a pre-reflexive state where his consciousness is entirely focused on the events within the room. Upon hearing a floorboard creak behind him, he abruptly becomes aware of himself as being observed by the Other. This realization engenders profound shame, as he perceives himself as he would perceive another person engaged in the same act—as a "Peeping Tom." For Sartre, this phenomenological experience of shame provides empirical evidence for the existence of other minds, thereby refuting the problem of solipsism. The conscious experience of shame necessitates an awareness of oneself as an object of another's perception, thus offering a priori proof of other minds. Consequently, the Gaze is understood as co-constitutive of one's facticity.
The "Look" is characterized by the absence of a necessary external observer; for instance, a creaking floorboard might merely indicate an old house. This phenomenon is not a mystical, telepathic apprehension of how another person genuinely perceives an individual (even if someone were present, they might not have noticed the individual). Instead, it represents an individual's subjective interpretation of how another might potentially perceive them.
Angst and Dread
"Existential angst," alternatively termed existential dread, anxiety, or anguish, constitutes a concept prevalent among numerous existentialist philosophers. This phenomenon is commonly understood as a negative emotional state stemming from the human encounter with freedom and responsibility. A quintessential illustration involves the sensation experienced while standing on a cliff, where an individual not only fears an accidental fall but also confronts the terrifying prospect of intentionally casting themselves down. Within this experience, characterized by the perception that "nothing is holding me back," one discerns the absence of any predetermined force compelling either self-destruction or stasis, thereby realizing one's inherent freedom.
Furthermore, in connection with the preceding discussion, angst is distinct from fear in that it lacks a specific object. While individuals can implement strategies to eliminate the source of fear, no comparable "constructive" interventions are feasible for angst. The term "nothing" in this context signifies the intrinsic uncertainty regarding the repercussions of one's actions and the realization that, through the experience of freedom as angst, one assumes complete accountability for these outcomes. No inherent human attribute (e.g., genetic predisposition) serves as a substitute for individual agency, thereby precluding external blame for adverse events. Consequently, not every decision is perceived as entailing dire potential consequences; indeed, it could be argued that human existence would become intolerable if every choice engendered dread. Nevertheless, this observation does not alter the fundamental premise that freedom underpins every action.
Despair
Conventionally, despair is characterized as the absence of hope. Within existentialist thought, however, it denotes a more specific loss of hope resulting from the disintegration of one or more fundamental aspects of an individual's self or identity. Should a person's identity be intrinsically linked to a particular role, such as a bus driver or a reputable citizen, and that "being-thing" subsequently becomes compromised, they would typically experience a state of profound hopelessness, or despair. For instance, a vocalist who loses the capacity to sing may succumb to despair if their identity is solely predicated on this ability, lacking alternative foundations for self-definition. Such an individual would then confront an inability to embody what previously constituted their essence.
The existentialist conceptualization of despair diverges from its conventional definition by positing that it represents a latent state, present even when an individual does not overtly manifest hopelessness. As long as a person's identity relies upon mutable qualities, they exist in a condition of perpetual despair. Given that, in Sartrean philosophy, no inherent human essence exists within conventional reality to form the basis of individual identity, despair is considered a universal human condition. Kierkegaard articulates this in Either/Or, stating: "Let each one learn what he can; both of us can learn that a person's unhappiness never lies in his lack of control over external conditions, since this would only make him completely unhappy." In Works of Love, he further elaborates:
When the God-forsaken worldliness of earthly life shuts itself in complacency, the confined air develops poison, the moment gets stuck and stands still, the prospect is lost, a need is felt for a refreshing, enlivening breeze to cleanse the air and dispel the poisonous vapors lest we suffocate in worldliness. ... To hope lovingly for all things stands in opposition to despairingly hoping for nothing. Love embraces all possibilities without ever incurring shame. To anticipate the potential for good is to hope, whereas to anticipate the potential for evil is to fear. The choice to embrace hope represents a decision of far greater magnitude than it initially appears, for it constitutes an eternal commitment.
Opposition to Positivism and Rationalism
Existentialist philosophy fundamentally challenges the notion of human beings as primarily rational entities, thereby rejecting both positivism and rationalism. It posits that individuals derive decisions from subjective interpretations of meaning rather than purely rational processes. A central tenet of existentialist thought involves the repudiation of reason as the ultimate source of meaning, alongside a profound focus on the anxiety and dread experienced in confronting radical free will and the inevitability of death. Søren Kierkegaard, for instance, acknowledged rationality's utility for engaging with the objective world, particularly in natural sciences, but deemed it insufficient for addressing existential dilemmas, asserting that "Human reason has boundaries."
Mirroring Kierkegaard's reservations, Jean-Paul Sartre identified rationality as a manifestation of "bad faith," an attempt by the self to impose order upon "the Other," a phenomenal world inherently irrational and contingent. Sartre contended that rationality, along with other forms of bad faith, impedes individuals from discovering meaning through freedom. He argued that people, in an effort to suppress feelings of anxiety and dread, restrict themselves to mundane experiences, thereby surrendering their autonomy and succumbing to the influence of "the Look" of "the Other"—meaning, the perception or imagined perception of another person.
Religion
An existentialist interpretation of the Bible necessitates that the reader acknowledge their status as an existing subject engaging with the text as a recollection of events. This approach contrasts with viewing the Bible as a compendium of external, unrelated "truths" that might nonetheless foster a sense of reality or God. Such a reader is not compelled to adhere to commandments as if imposed by an external agent, but rather as internal directives guiding them from within. This challenge is encapsulated in Kierkegaard's query: "Who has the more difficult task: the teacher who lectures on earnest things a meteor's distance from everyday life—or the learner who should put it to use?" Philosophers like Hans Jonas and Rudolph Bultmann subsequently introduced the concept of existentialist demythologization into the study of early Christianity and Christian theology, respectively.
Confusion with Nihilism
Although nihilism and existentialism are distinct philosophical frameworks, they are frequently conflated due to their shared origins in the human experience of anguish and confusion, which arises from the apparent meaninglessness of a world where humans are compelled to find or create meaning. A primary factor contributing to this confusion is Friedrich Nietzsche's significant influence on both fields.
While existentialist philosophers frequently emphasize angst as indicative of the absolute absence of any objective foundation for action, this perspective is often misconstrued as moral or existential nihilism. However, a pervasive theme within existentialist philosophy involves perseverance through encounters with the absurd, as famously articulated in Albert Camus's philosophical essay The Myth of Sisyphus (1942): "One must imagine Sisyphus happy." It is exceedingly rare for existentialist thinkers to entirely dismiss morality or self-created meaning; Søren Kierkegaard, for example, re-established a form of morality within the religious sphere (though he would distinguish it from the ethical, which the religious suspends), and Jean-Paul Sartre concluded Being and Nothingness (1943) by stating: "All these questions, which refer us to a pure and not an accessory (or impure) reflection, can find their reply only on the ethical plane. We shall devote to them a future work."
History
Precursors
Some scholars contend that existentialism has long been an intrinsic component of European religious thought, predating the term's formal adoption. William Barrett, for instance, identified Blaise Pascal and Søren Kierkegaard as notable examples. Jean Wahl similarly recognized William Shakespeare's Prince Hamlet, particularly his soliloquy "To be, or not to be," alongside Jules Lequier, Thomas Carlyle, and William James, as figures embodying existentialist themes. According to Wahl, "the origins of most great philosophies, like those of Plato, Descartes, and Kant, are to be found in existential reflections." Furthermore, precursors to existentialism can be discerned in the writings of the Iranian Muslim philosopher Mulla Sadra (c. 1571–1635), who advanced the principle that "existence precedes essence," becoming a principal exponent of the School of Isfahan, which is characterized as "alive and active."
19th century
Kierkegaard and Nietzsche
Søren Kierkegaard is widely recognized as the foundational figure in existentialist philosophy. He posited that each individual, rather than reason, societal norms, or religious orthodoxy, bears the sole responsibility for imbuing life with meaning and for living authentically.
Kierkegaard and Nietzsche are considered two of the earliest philosophers fundamental to the existentialist movement, despite neither having employed the term "existentialism" nor their potential alignment with 20th-century existentialist thought being definitively clear. Their philosophical inquiries prioritized subjective human experience over the objective truths derived from mathematics and science, which they deemed too detached or observational to genuinely capture the human condition. Similar to Pascal, they explored the individual's silent struggle with life's apparent meaninglessness and the use of diversion as an escape from boredom. However, unlike Pascal, Kierkegaard and Nietzsche also examined the significance of making free choices, particularly concerning fundamental values and beliefs, and how such decisions fundamentally alter the chooser's nature and identity. Kierkegaard's concept of the "knight of faith" and Nietzsche's "Übermensch" exemplify individuals who embody freedom by defining the essence of their own existence. Nietzsche's idealized individual invents personal values and establishes the very conditions under which they achieve excellence. In contrast, Kierkegaard, who opposed the level of abstraction in Hegel's philosophy and was considerably less hostile (indeed, welcoming) to Christianity than Nietzsche, argued through a pseudonym that the objective certainty of religious truths, specifically Christian ones, is not only unattainable but also predicated on logical paradoxes. Nevertheless, he consistently implied that a "leap of faith" offers a potential pathway for an individual to attain a higher stage of existence that transcends and integrates both aesthetic and ethical dimensions of life. Furthermore, Kierkegaard and Nietzsche served as precursors to various other intellectual movements, including postmodernism and diverse strands of psychotherapy. However, Kierkegaard maintained that individuals should live in accordance with their own reflective thought.
In Twilight of the Idols, Nietzsche articulates a perspective that resonates with the concept of "existence precedes essence." He states, "no one gives man his qualities-- neither God, nor society, nor his parents and ancestors, nor he himself...No one is responsible for man's being there at all, for his being such-and-such, or for his being in these circumstances or in this environment...Man is not the effect of some special purpose of a will, and end..." This viewpoint is intrinsically linked to Nietzsche's rejection of a divine being, which he perceived as a mechanism to "redeem the world." Consequently, by disavowing the existence of God, Nietzsche simultaneously dismisses notions of human predestination based on divine directives.
Dostoyevsky
Fyodor Dostoevsky stands as the inaugural significant literary figure whose works are central to existentialist thought. His novel, Notes from Underground, vividly portrays an individual's inability to integrate into society and his dissatisfaction with self-constructed identities. Jean-Paul Sartre, in his treatise on existentialism, Existentialism is a Humanism, cited Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov as a prime illustration of an existential crisis. Other Dostoevsky novels explored themes pertinent to existentialist philosophy, yet often presented narratives diverging from secular existentialism; for instance, in Crime and Punishment, the protagonist Raskolnikov undergoes an existential crisis before gravitating towards a Christian Orthodox worldview, consistent with Dostoevsky's own advocacy.
Early 20th century
During the early twentieth century, several philosophers and authors investigated existentialist concepts. The Spanish philosopher Miguel de Unamuno y Jugo, in his 1913 work Tragic Sense of Life, underscored the significance of a "flesh and bone" existence, contrasting it with abstract rationalism. Unamuno eschewed systematic philosophy, instead advocating for the individual's pursuit of faith. He maintained an awareness of the tragic, even absurd, character of this quest, exemplified by his sustained fascination with the titular figure from Miguel de Cervantes' novel Don Quixote. As a novelist, poet, dramatist, and philosophy professor at the University of Salamanca, Unamuno authored a short story, Saint Manuel the Good, Martyr, depicting a priest's crisis of faith, which has been included in collections of existentialist literature. In 1914, another Spanish intellectual, José Ortega y Gasset, posited that human existence is invariably defined by the individual in conjunction with their specific life circumstances: "Yo soy yo y mi circunstancia" ("I am myself and my circumstances"). Similarly, Sartre contended that human existence is not an abstract concept but is perpetually situated ("en situation").
Despite authoring his principal philosophical works in German and having studied and taught at the Universities of Berlin and Frankfurt, Martin Buber diverged from the predominant currents of German philosophy. Born into a Jewish family in Vienna in 1878, he was also a distinguished scholar of Jewish culture and participated in Zionism and Hasidism at different periods. In 1938, he permanently relocated to Jerusalem. His most renowned philosophical contribution was the concise volume I and Thou, released in 1922. Buber asserted that the foundational aspect of human existence, often disregarded by scientific rationalism and abstract philosophical inquiry, is "man with man," a dialogical interaction occurring within the "sphere of between" ("das Zwischenmenschliche").
Lev Shestov and Nikolai Berdyaev, two Russian philosophers, gained prominence as existentialist thinkers during their post-Revolutionary exiles in Paris. As early as 1905, Shestov initiated a critique of rationalism and philosophical systematization in his aphoristic work All Things Are Possible. Berdyaev established a profound dichotomy between the spiritual realm and the mundane world of material objects. According to Berdyaev, human freedom originates in the spiritual domain, which operates independently of scientific principles of causation. Insofar as an individual exists within the objective world, they become alienated from genuine spiritual freedom. "Man" should not be understood naturalistically, but rather as a being fashioned in God's image, capable of initiating free, creative actions. He published a significant treatise exploring these themes, The Destiny of Man, in 1931.
Gabriel Marcel, predating his coinage of "existentialism," introduced significant existentialist concepts to a French readership through his early essay "Existence and Objectivity" (1925) and his Metaphysical Journal (1927). As both a dramatist and a philosopher, Marcel grounded his philosophical inquiry in a state of metaphysical alienation, wherein the human individual seeks harmony amidst a transient existence. Marcel posited that harmony is attainable through "secondary reflection," a "dialogical" rather than "dialectical" engagement with the world, marked by "wonder and astonishment," and receptive to the "presence" of others and of God, rather than solely to "information" concerning them. To Marcel, this concept of presence transcended mere co-existence (as one object might be present to another); instead, it signified an "extravagant" openness and a readiness to commit oneself to the other.
Marcel juxtaposed secondary reflection with abstract, scientific-technical primary reflection, which he linked to the operations of the abstract Cartesian ego. In Marcel's view, philosophy constituted a concrete endeavor performed by a sentient, emotional human being, incarnated—embodied—within a tangible world. While Sartre embraced the term "existentialism" for his philosophy during the 1940s, Marcel's intellectual framework has been characterized as "almost diametrically opposed" to Sartre's. In contrast to Sartre, Marcel was a Christian, converting to Catholicism in 1929.
In Germany, the psychiatrist and philosopher Karl Jaspers—who subsequently characterized existentialism as a public construct or "phantom"—termed his philosophical framework, significantly shaped by Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, Existenzphilosophie. According to Jaspers, "Existenz-philosophy represents a mode of inquiry through which individuals strive for self-realization. This intellectual approach does not merely apprehend external objects but rather illuminates and actualizes the inherent being of the contemplating subject."
Jaspers, then a professor at the University of Heidelberg, maintained an acquaintance with Heidegger, who had held a professorship at Marburg prior to assuming Husserl's chair at Freiburg in 1928. Their extensive philosophical discussions eventually ceased due to Heidegger's endorsement of National Socialism. Both scholars shared an appreciation for Kierkegaard, and during the 1930s, Heidegger delivered numerous lectures concerning Nietzsche's philosophy. Nonetheless, the classification of Heidegger as an existentialist remains a subject of scholarly debate. In his seminal work, Being and Time, Heidegger proposed a methodology for grounding philosophical inquiry in human existence (Dasein), which was to be analyzed through 'existential categories' (existentiale). This approach has prompted numerous commentators to position him as a pivotal figure within the existentialist tradition.
The Post-Second World War Period
Subsequent to the Second World War, existentialism emerged as a prominent and influential philosophical and cultural movement, primarily due to the widespread public recognition of two French authors, Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, whose prolific output included best-selling novels, theatrical works, widely circulated journalism, and foundational theoretical texts. Concurrently, this period witnessed the increasing international acclaim for Heidegger's Being and Time beyond Germany.
Sartre explored existentialist concepts in his 1938 novel Nausea and the short stories compiled in his 1939 collection The Wall, having also released his comprehensive treatise on existentialism, Being and Nothingness, in 1943. However, it was during the two years subsequent to the liberation of Paris from German occupation that Sartre and his immediate circle—including Camus, Simone de Beauvoir, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty—achieved international renown as the foremost proponents of the existentialist movement. Within a remarkably brief timeframe, Camus and Sartre, in particular, ascended to become the preeminent public intellectuals of post-war France, attaining by late 1945 "a fame that reached across all audiences." Camus served as an editor for the highly influential leftist newspaper Combat, which had roots in the French Resistance. Concurrently, Sartre inaugurated his journal of leftist intellectual discourse, Les Temps Modernes, and a fortnight later delivered a widely publicized lecture on existentialism and secular humanism to a capacity audience at the Club Maintenant. Beauvoir observed that "not a week passed without the newspapers discussing us," indicating that existentialism rapidly transformed into "the first media craze of the postwar era."
By late 1947, Camus's earlier fictional works and theatrical productions had undergone reprinting, his new play Caligula had been staged, and his novel The Plague had been released. Additionally, the initial two novels of Sartre's The Roads to Freedom trilogy were published, alongside Beauvoir's novel The Blood of Others. The literary output of both Camus and Sartre was already being translated and published in international editions. Consequently, the existentialist intellectuals centered in Paris had achieved widespread recognition.
In 1930, Sartre undertook a journey to Germany to engage with the phenomenological philosophies of Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger, subsequently incorporating critical analyses of their work into his seminal treatise, Being and Nothingness. Heidegger's philosophical concepts also gained traction within French intellectual discourse, largely through Alexandre Kojève's application of them in his influential series of lectures on Hegel, delivered in Paris during the 1930s. These lectures proved profoundly influential, attracting an audience that comprised not only Sartre and Merleau-Ponty but also Raymond Queneau, Georges Bataille, Louis Althusser, André Breton, and Jacques Lacan. Furthermore, a selection from Being and Time was translated and published in French in 1938, coinciding with the appearance of his essays in various French philosophical journals.
Heidegger initially expressed admiration for Sartre's work, stating, "Here for the first time I encountered an independent thinker who, from the foundations up, has experienced the area out of which I think. Your work shows such an immediate comprehension of my philosophy as I have never before encountered." Subsequently, in his Letter on Humanism, Heidegger publicly disavowed Sartre's stance and existentialism broadly, responding to an inquiry from his French disciple, Jean Beaufret. Heidegger's influence in France expanded throughout the 1950s and 1960s. During the 1960s, Sartre endeavored to synthesize existentialism with Marxism in his publication, Critique of Dialectical Reason. A prominent recurring motif in Sartre's oeuvre was the interplay of freedom and responsibility.
Albert Camus, a former associate of Sartre until their estrangement, authored several works exploring existential themes, including The Rebel, Summer in Algiers, The Myth of Sisyphus, and The Stranger. The latter is often regarded as the quintessential existentialist novel, a classification that would have likely displeased Camus. Consistent with many contemporaries, Camus disavowed the existentialist designation, preferring to characterize his writings as addressing the concept of the absurd. In the eponymous text, Camus employs the Greek myth of Sisyphus to illustrate the inherent futility of human existence. The myth depicts Sisyphus's eternal punishment of repeatedly pushing a boulder uphill, only for it to descend upon reaching the apex. Camus posits that despite this inherently meaningless existence, Sisyphus ultimately derives significance and purpose through his persistent engagement with the task. The initial section of the book presents a comprehensive critique of what Camus interpreted as existentialist philosophy, particularly as articulated by Kierkegaard, Shestov, Heidegger, and Jaspers.
Simone de Beauvoir, a significant existentialist and long-term companion of Sartre, explored feminist existentialist ethics in her publications, notably The Second Sex and The Ethics of Ambiguity. Her essay "What is Existentialism?" elucidates her conceptualization and definition of existentialist philosophy. Despite frequently being overshadowed by her association with Sartre, de Beauvoir pioneered the integration of existentialism with other intellectual frameworks, such as feminism, a novel approach for her era that led to her estrangement from peers like Camus.
Paul Tillich, a prominent existentialist theologian influenced by Kierkegaard and Karl Barth, applied existentialist principles to Christian theology, thereby contributing to the popularization of existential theology. His influential work, The Courage to Be, builds upon Kierkegaard's examination of anxiety and the absurdity of existence, proposing that contemporary individuals must attain selfhood through divine connection, notwithstanding life's inherent meaninglessness. Rudolf Bultmann employed the existential philosophies of Kierkegaard and Heidegger to demythologize Christianity, reinterpreting its mythical elements through an existentialist lens.
Maurice Merleau-Ponty, an existential phenomenologist, maintained an association with Sartre for a period. His 1945 publication, Phenomenology of Perception, gained recognition as a foundational text in French existentialism. Merleau-Ponty's work, Humanism and Terror, is reputed to have significantly impacted Sartre. Nevertheless, their relationship later deteriorated irrevocably, leading to a schism among many existentialists, including de Beauvoir, who aligned herself with Sartre.
In 1956, the English author Colin Wilson released his study, The Outsider, which initially garnered significant critical praise. Through this work and subsequent publications, such as Introduction to the New Existentialism, Wilson sought to revitalize what he considered a pessimistic philosophical tradition and disseminate it to a broader readership. Lacking formal academic training, his contributions faced criticism from professional philosophers for their perceived deficiencies in rigor and adherence to critical standards.
Influence Beyond Philosophy
Art
Film and Television
Stanley Kubrick's 1957 anti-war film Paths of Glory effectively "illustrates, and even illuminates...existentialism" through its exploration of the "necessary absurdity of the human condition" and the "horror of war." The narrative follows a fictional French army regiment during World War I, commanded to assault an impenetrable German stronghold. Following the attack's failure, three soldiers are arbitrarily selected, subjected to a "kangaroo court" martial, and subsequently executed by firing squad. The film delves into existentialist ethical dilemmas, including the feasibility of objectivity and the "problem of authenticity." Similarly, Orson Welles's 1962 film The Trial, an adaptation of Franz Kafka's novel of the same title (Der Prozeß), exemplifies both existentialist and absurdist themes by portraying a man, Joseph K., arrested for an undisclosed crime, the charges of which remain unknown to both him and the audience.
Neon Genesis Evangelion, a Japanese science fiction animation series, was conceived, directed, and written by Hideaki Anno for the anime studio Gainax. The series extensively incorporates existential themes such as individuality, consciousness, freedom, choice, and responsibility, drawing particularly from the philosophies of Jean-Paul Sartre and Søren Kierkegaard. Notably, the title of Episode 16, "The Sickness Unto Death, And..." (死に至る病、そして, Shi ni itaru yamai, soshite), directly references Kierkegaard's seminal work, The Sickness Unto Death.
Several contemporary films address existentialist concerns, including Melancholia, Fight Club, I Heart Huckabees, Waking Life, The Matrix, Ordinary People, Life in a Day, Barbie, and Everything Everywhere All at Once. Concurrently, numerous 20th-century cinematic works also exhibit existentialist characteristics, such as The Seventh Seal, Ikiru, Taxi Driver, the Toy Story franchise, Pokémon: The First Movie, The Great Silence, Ghost in the Shell, Harold and Maude, High Noon, Easy Rider, One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, A Clockwork Orange, Groundhog Day, Apocalypse Now, Badlands, and Blade Runner.
Prominent directors recognized for their existentialist cinematic contributions include Ingmar Bergman, Bela Tarr, Robert Bresson, Jean-Pierre Melville, François Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, Michelangelo Antonioni, Akira Kurosawa, Terrence Malick, Stanley Kubrick, Andrei Tarkovsky, Éric Rohmer, Wes Anderson, Woody Allen, and Christopher Nolan. Charlie Kaufman's film Synecdoche, New York centers on the protagonist's quest for existential meaning. Similarly, in Kurosawa's Red Beard, the protagonist's tenure as an intern at a rural Japanese health clinic precipitates an existential crisis, prompting him to question his purpose, which ultimately leads to a deeper comprehension of humanity. The French film Mood Indigo, directed by Michel Gondry, incorporates various existentialist elements. Furthermore, the 1994 film The Shawshank Redemption explores several existentialist concepts through its depiction of life within a prison in Maine, United States.
Literature
Existential perspectives are also evident in modern literature, particularly since the 1920s, manifesting to varying degrees. Louis-Ferdinand Céline's 1932 novel Journey to the End of the Night (Voyage au bout de la nuit), lauded by both Sartre and Beauvoir, prefigured many themes later found in existential literature and is, in some respects, considered a proto-existential novel. Jean-Paul Sartre's 1938 novel Nausea was "steeped in Existential ideas" and offers an accessible entry point to his philosophical stance. Between 1900 and 1960, authors such as Albert Camus, Franz Kafka, Rainer Maria Rilke, T. S. Eliot, Yukio Mishima, Hermann Hesse, Luigi Pirandello, Ralph Ellison, and Jack Kerouac produced literary works or poetry that contained, to varying extents, elements of existential or proto-existential thought. The philosophy's influence even permeated pulp literature shortly after the turn of the 20th century, exemplified by the existential disparity observed in humanity's perceived lack of control over fate within the works of H. P. Lovecraft.
Theatre
Jean-Paul Sartre's existentialist play, No Exit, penned in 1944, was originally published in French as Huis Clos, signifying In Camera or 'behind closed doors.' This work is the origin of the widely recognized aphorism, 'Hell is other people' (in French, 'L'enfer, c'est les autres'). The play commences with a Valet guiding a man into a room, which the audience soon perceives as a depiction of hell. He is subsequently joined by two women. After their entrance, the Valet exits, and the door is secured. While the three characters anticipate torture, no tormentor appears. Instead, they realize their purpose is to mutually inflict suffering, a task they effectively achieve by scrutinizing each other's transgressions, desires, and distressing memories.
Existentialist themes are notably manifested within the Theatre of the Absurd, particularly in Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot. The play depicts two men who occupy themselves while anticipating the arrival of an elusive figure named Godot, who never appears. Although they assert an acquaintance with Godot, they acknowledge their limited knowledge, admitting they would not recognize him. When queried about Godot's identity, Samuel Beckett famously retorted, 'If I knew, I would have said so in the play.' To alleviate their prolonged wait, the characters engage in diverse activities such as eating, sleeping, conversing, arguing, singing, playing games, exercising, swapping hats, and contemplating suicide, all endeavors 'to hold the terrible silence at bay.' The play is recognized for its utilization of 'several archetypal forms and situations, all of which lend themselves to both comedy and pathos.' Moreover, it illuminates a perspective on human experience on Earth, encompassing its poignancy, oppression, camaraderie, hope, corruption, and bewilderment, suggesting these aspects are reconcilable solely within the absurdist's intellectual and artistic framework. The work critically examines profound questions regarding death, the meaning of human existence, and the position of God within it.
Tom Stoppard's Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead, an absurdist tragicomedy, premiered at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe in 1966. This play expands upon the exploits of two minor characters from William Shakespeare's Hamlet. Comparisons have frequently been drawn to Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot, particularly regarding the presence of two central characters who appear almost as two halves of a single entity. Numerous plot features also exhibit similarities, such as the characters' methods of passing time by playing Questions, impersonating other figures, and alternating between mutual interruptions and prolonged silences. The two protagonists are depicted as clown-like or foolish individuals navigating a world beyond their understanding. They often engage in philosophical arguments without fully realizing their implications, and frequently muse upon the inherent irrationality and randomness of existence.
Jean Anouilh's Antigone similarly presents arguments grounded in existentialist concepts. This tragedy draws inspiration from Greek mythology and Sophocles' fifth-century BC play of the same title, Antigone. In English, Anouilh's work is often distinguished from its classical antecedent by its approximate original French pronunciation, 'Ante-GŌN.' The play premiered in Paris on February 6, 1944, during the Nazi occupation of France. Produced under Nazi censorship, the work intentionally maintains ambiguity concerning the rejection of authority, personified by Antigone, and its acceptance, embodied by Creon. Consequently, parallels have been drawn between the play's themes and the French Resistance against the Nazi occupation. Within the narrative, Antigone rejects life as desperately meaningless, though without affirmatively choosing a noble death. The core of the play centers on an extensive dialogue exploring the nature of power, fate, and choice, during which Antigone expresses her '... disgust with [the]...promise of a humdrum happiness,' stating her preference for death over a mediocre existence.
Martin Esslin, in his seminal work Theatre of the Absurd, highlighted how numerous contemporary playwrights, including Samuel Beckett, Eugène Ionesco, Jean Genet, and Arthur Adamov, integrated into their dramatic works the existentialist conviction that humanity exists as absurd entities within a universe devoid of inherent meaning. Esslin further observed that these playwrights often articulated existentialist philosophy more effectively than the theatrical productions of Sartre and Camus. Despite the fact that most of these playwrights, later categorized as "Absurdist" following Esslin's publication, disavowed any association with existentialism and frequently adopted an anti-philosophical stance (e.g., Ionesco often asserted a greater affinity for 'Pataphysics or Surrealism than for existentialism), their works are commonly connected to existentialism due to Esslin's influential analysis.
Activism
Black existentialism investigates the lived experiences and ontological conditions of Black individuals globally. Prominent classical and contemporary proponents of this perspective include C.L.R. James, Frederick Douglass, W.E.B. DuBois, Frantz Fanon, Angela Davis, Cornel West, Naomi Zack, bell hooks, Stuart Hall, Lewis Gordon, and Audre Lorde.
Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy
A significant development stemming from existentialist philosophy is existentialist psychology and psychoanalysis, which initially coalesced in the contributions of Otto Rank, who was Sigmund Freud's closest associate for two decades. Independently, Ludwig Binswanger, though unaware of Rank's work, drew influence from Freud, Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, and Jean-Paul Sartre. Viktor Frankl, a subsequent figure, had a brief encounter with Freud during his youth; Frankl's logotherapy is widely considered a form of existentialist therapy. Existentialist thought also exerted influence on social psychology, antipositivist micro-sociology, symbolic interactionism, and post-structuralism, notably through the works of scholars like Georg Simmel and Michel Foucault. Foucault was an avid reader of Kierkegaard, and despite rarely referencing him directly, Kierkegaard's influence on Foucault was profoundly significant, albeit subtly acknowledged.
Rollo May, significantly influenced by Kierkegaard and Otto Rank, emerged as an early contributor to existentialist psychology in the United States. Irvin D. Yalom is recognized as one of the most prolific authors concerning the techniques and theoretical underpinnings of existentialist psychology in the U.S. Yalom posits:
Beyond their opposition to Freud's mechanistic, deterministic model of the mind and their adoption of a phenomenological approach in therapy, existentialist analysts share minimal common ground and have never been considered a unified ideological school. These intellectuals—including Ludwig Binswanger, Medard Boss, Eugène Minkowski, V. E. Gebsattel, Roland Kuhn, G. Caruso, F. T. Buytendijk, G. Bally, and Victor Frankl—remained largely unfamiliar to the American psychotherapeutic community until Rollo May's highly influential 1958 publication, Existence, particularly its introductory essay, facilitated the introduction of their work into the United States.
Emmy van Deurzen, based in Britain, represents a more contemporary contributor to the evolution of a European model of existentialist psychotherapy.
The central role of anxiety within existentialism renders it a significant subject in psychotherapy. Therapists frequently employ existentialist philosophy to elucidate the nature of anxiety, positing that it manifests from an individual's absolute freedom to make choices and their complete responsibility for the consequences of those decisions. Psychotherapists employing an existentialist framework contend that patients can channel their anxiety and utilize it productively. Rather than suppressing anxiety, patients are encouraged to perceive it as a catalyst for personal transformation. By accepting anxiety as an inherent aspect of existence, individuals can leverage it to realize their full potential. Humanistic psychology also received substantial impetus from existentialist psychology, sharing numerous foundational principles. Terror management theory, grounded in the works of Ernest Becker and Otto Rank, constitutes an evolving field of inquiry within academic psychology, investigating what researchers identify as the implicit emotional responses of individuals when confronted with the awareness of their own mortality.
Furthermore, Gerd B. Achenbach has revitalized the Socratic tradition through his distinctive approach to philosophical counseling, a practice also advanced by Michel Weber with his Chromatiques Center in Belgium.
Criticisms
General Criticisms
Walter Kaufmann critically assessed existentialism, highlighting its "profoundly unsound methods and the dangerous contempt for reason." Similarly, logical positivist philosophers, including Rudolf Carnap and A. J. Ayer, contend that existentialist analyses of "being" frequently exhibit confusion regarding the verb "to be." They specifically assert that "is" functions transitively, requiring a predicate (e.g., an apple is red), and becomes semantically void without one, a principle they argue existentialists often disregard. Furthermore, Colin Wilson, in his work The Angry Years, posited that existentialism has generated numerous inherent challenges: "The question of free will has been compromised by post-romantic philosophy's inherent inclination towards indolence and ennui, leading existentialism into a self-made predicament, with subsequent philosophical advancements merely circling this dilemma."
Sartre's Philosophy
Numerous critics contend that Jean-Paul Sartre's philosophical framework contains inherent contradictions, particularly noting his engagement in metaphysical argumentation despite his assertions of eschewing metaphysics. Herbert Marcuse, for instance, critiqued Sartre's seminal work, Being and Nothingness, for attributing anxiety and meaninglessness to the fundamental nature of existence itself. Marcuse argued: "As a philosophical doctrine, Existentialism persists as an idealistic framework, elevating specific historical circumstances of human existence to ontological and metaphysical attributes. Consequently, Existentialism inadvertently aligns with the very ideology it purports to challenge, rendering its radical stance illusory."
In his influential work, Letter on Humanism, Martin Heidegger offered a critique of Sartre's existentialism, stating:
Existentialism says existence precedes essence. In this statement he is taking existentia and essentia according to their metaphysical meaning, which, from Plato's time on, has said that essentia precedes existentia. Sartre reverses this statement. But the reversal of a metaphysical statement remains a metaphysical statement. With it, he stays with metaphysics, in oblivion of the truth of Being.
References
References
Citations
Bibliography
Fieser, James; Dowden, Bradley (eds.). 'Existentialism.' In Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN 2161-0002. OCLC 37741658.
- Fieser, James; Dowden, Bradley (eds.). "Existentialism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN 2161-0002. OCLC 37741658. by Richard Appignanesi and Oscar Zárate (Icon Books, 2001).