Epicureanism

Epicureanism, also known as Epicurism, is a philosophical school established in 307 BCE, drawing its principles from the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus. Epicurus adopted an atomist and materialist perspective, building upon the ideas of Democritus. This materialist stance fostered his religious skepticism and prompted a broad critique of superstition and divine intervention. Initially, Epicureanism emerged as a counterpoint to Platonism, later finding its primary philosophical adversary in Stoicism. It aligns with hedonism by positing pleasure as its singular intrinsic objective. Nevertheless, its assertion that the ultimate pleasure derives from the absence of pain and fear, coupled with its promotion of a modest lifestyle, distinguishes it significantly from the common understanding of hedonism.

Epicureanism, less commonly Epicurism, is a school of philosophy founded in 307 BCE and based upon the teachings of Epicurus, an ancient Greek philosopher. Epicurus was an atomist and materialist, following in the steps of Democritus. His materialism led him to religious scepticism and a general attack on superstition and divine intervention. Epicureanism was originally a challenge to Platonism, and its main opponent later became Stoicism. It is a form of hedonism insofar as it declares pleasure to be its sole intrinsic goal. However, the concept that the absence of pain and fear constitutes the greatest pleasure, and its advocacy of a simple life, make it very different from hedonism as colloquially understood.

Building on the ideas of the Cyrenaic philosopher Aristippus, Epicurus contended that the supreme good involved pursuing moderate, enduring pleasure. This pleasure manifested as a state of ataraxia (tranquility and liberation from fear) and aponia (the absence of physical discomfort), achieved through understanding the natural world and moderating one's desires. Consequently, Epicurus and his adherents typically disengaged from political life, perceiving it as a source of frustrations and aspirations that could impede their quest for virtue and inner peace.

Only a limited number of Epicurus's original writings have endured. Diogenes Laertius preserved three didactic letters ascribed to Epicurus, alongside a compilation of the Principal Doctrines of Epicureanism. The epistles addressed to Herodotus and Menoeceus are widely regarded as authentic compositions by Epicurus himself. Conversely, the letter to Pythocles is frequently considered a compilation by one of his students, likely drawing from Epicurus's original texts. Further independent evidence of his concepts comes from early critics, including Clement of Alexandria, Plutarch, and Cicero, as well as from later adherents who championed his philosophy. Examples include Lucius Manlius Torquatus's defense of Epicurean ethics and Gaius Velleius's articulation of the Epicurean understanding of the gods, both found in Cicero's works, in addition to Colotes, whom Plutarch addresses in his writings. Lucretius's epic poem, De rerum natura (Latin for "On the Nature of Things"), comprehensively presents the foundational arguments and theories of Epicureanism. Numerous Epicurean texts have also been discovered on scrolls excavated from the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum. These largely comprise works by the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus or his instructor Zeno of Sidon, alongside fragments attributed to Epicurus himself. In the 2nd century CE, Diogenes of Oenoanda, a prosperous Epicurean, commissioned a portico wall in Oenoanda, Lycia (modern-day Turkey), inscribed with the tenets of the philosophy.

Epicureanism experienced a period of prosperity during the Late Hellenistic and Roman eras, leading to the establishment of numerous Epicurean communities in locations such as Antioch, Alexandria, Rhodes, and Herculaneum. By the close of the 3rd century CE, the philosophy had largely faded, facing opposition from ascendant philosophical movements, primarily Neoplatonism. However, interest in Epicureanism was revived during the Age of Enlightenment and persists into the contemporary period.

History

Born in 342/1 BCE on Samos, Epicurus founded the Epicurean School. During his formative years, he studied under Pamphilus, a Platonist philosopher on Samos, and subsequently received instruction from Nausiphanes of Teos, a disciple of Democritus. Despite Epicurus' later tendency to minimize these early influences, Nausiphanes is widely recognized as having significantly shaped his philosophical development. At eighteen, Epicurus journeyed to Athens for military service. Upon completing his obligations, he dedicated himself wholly to philosophy while residing in Colophon. He subsequently taught and attracted adherents in Mytilene, the capital of Lesbos, and then in Lampsacus. In Athens, Epicurus acquired a property for his institution, which became known as "The Garden," the eponymous designation for his school. Its notable members included Hermarchus, Idomeneus, Colotes, Polyaenus, and Metrodorus. Epicurus underscored friendship as a crucial component of happiness, and the school appears to have functioned as a moderately ascetic community that eschewed the political prominence characteristic of Athenian philosophy. By Athenian norms, the community was notably cosmopolitan, admitting both women and slaves. Communal activities held considerable significance, particularly the observance of Eikas, a monthly social assembly. While some members practiced vegetarianism, and slight evidence suggests Epicurus himself abstained from meat, no formal prohibition against its consumption was established.

The Epicurean school's influence expanded, establishing it as a preeminent current within Hellenistic philosophy, alongside Stoicism, Platonism, Peripateticism, and Pyrrhonism. Its prominence persisted robustly throughout the later Roman Empire. Evidence of its sustained popularity is found in the deciphered carbonized scrolls from the Villa of the Papyri library in Herculaneum, which contain numerous works by Philodemus, a late Hellenistic Epicurean, and by Epicurus himself. Julius Caesar notably favored Epicureanism, a stance that informed his opposition to the death penalty during the trial of Catiline amidst the Catilinarian conspiracy, where he publicly challenged the Stoic Cato. His father-in-law, Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, was also a devotee of the school. During the 2nd century CE, prominent Epicureans included the comedian Lucian of Samosata and Diogenes of Oenoanda, a wealthy patron of philosophy.

Following Epicurus' demise, leadership of the school transitioned to Hermarchus, a native of Mytilene, who was subsequently succeeded by Polystratus. Among Epicurus' most intimate disciples were Hermarchus, Polyaenus, and Metrodorus of Lampsacus.

Amafinius stands as one of the earliest Roman authors to advocate Epicureanism, though his writings have not endured. The Roman philosopher Cicero later documented his attendance at lectures by Phaedrus, who led the Athenian school around 90 BCE and subsequently visited Rome. Cicero's works also preserve arguments by the Roman consul Lucius Manlius Torquatus and Gaius Velleius, both defending Epicurean tenets. Nevertheless, the most celebrated adherent of Epicureanism was the Roman poet Titus Lucretius Carus (c. 91–51 BCE). Lucretius articulated Epicurus' philosophical concepts in his didactic poem, De Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things). The primary objective of this magnum opus was to liberate individuals from the apprehension of deities and mortality, thereby guiding them toward the attainment of inner peace and tranquility. The Epicurean philosopher Philodemus of Gadara, previously recognized only as a minor poet until the 18th century, gained significant scholarly attention following the discovery of a substantial portion of his work, alongside other Epicurean texts such as the lectures of Zeno of Sidon, at the Villa of the Papyri. Another ancient Epicurean figure is Diogenes of Oenoanda, who, in the 2nd century CE, commissioned a monumental inscription at Oenoanda in Lycia. Diogenes Laërtius also recorded calumnious narratives disseminated by Epicurus' adversaries.

By the late third century CE, Epicureanism had largely faded, with minimal evidence of its continued existence. Its decline coincided with the increasing ascendancy of Neoplatonism and Peripateticism, followed by the rise of Christianity.

Philosophy

Physics

Epicurus articulated three fundamental principles regarding the physical world in his letter to Herodotus (distinct from the historian): existence cannot originate from non-existence; destruction does not equate to cessation of being; and all current existence has always been and will perpetually remain. These principles aimed to establish the inherent permanence and immutability of all constituents of the world. Epicurean physics posited that the universe comprised two fundamental elements: matter and void. Matter, according to this view, consists of atoms—minute, indivisible bodies characterized solely by immutable properties of shape, size, and weight. The Epicureans maintained the immutability of atoms, reasoning that the world's order necessitated specific and consistent sources for change (e.g., a plant species originating exclusively from its own seed). They further argued that the universe's persistence depended on its ultimate constituents remaining unalterable, as any change to these fundamental elements would lead to the universe's destruction.

Epicurus contended that an infinite quantity of atoms exists, albeit with a finite number of atom types, alongside an infinite expanse of void. This assertion is elaborated by Epicurus in his correspondence with Herodotus:

Furthermore, the totality of existence is boundless, encompassing both an immense number of atoms and an infinite void. Were the void infinite and bodies finite, these bodies would lack any fixed location, instead dispersing throughout the boundless void without any supports or counteracting forces to redirect their upward trajectory. Conversely, if the void were finite, the infinite multitude of bodies would have no space to occupy.

The infinite abundance of atoms implies the existence of an infinite number of worlds, or cosmoi. These worlds could vary significantly from our own, with some exhibiting considerable similarities, and all were separated by extensive regions of void, termed metakosmia.

Epicurean philosophy asserts that atoms are indivisible into smaller constituents, a principle based on the necessity of void for matter's movement. Any entity composed of both void and matter is susceptible to disintegration, whereas a substance devoid of void possesses no mechanism for fragmentation, as no portion of it could be reduced to a smaller subsection. Atoms exhibit perpetual motion through four distinct modalities. Atoms may simply collide and subsequently rebound from one another. When coalesced to form a larger entity, atoms can vibrate upon mutual collision, yet the composite object retains its macroscopic form.

Absent obstruction from other atoms, all atoms naturally descend at a uniform velocity relative to the surrounding world. While this downward trajectory is inherent to atoms, they possess a fourth mode of motion: an occasional, random deviation from their customary downward course, known as the swerve. This swerving motion was instrumental in the universe's formation, as increased atomic swerving and subsequent collisions facilitated the aggregation of atoms into discernible objects. Lacking the swerve, atoms would have remained non-interactive, merely continuing their uniform downward movement. Epicurus further posited that the swerve provided the basis for human free will. Without this atomic deviation, human actions would be entirely predetermined by an unbroken chain of causality. This particular aspect frequently served as a point of critique by Epicureans against Democritus' atomic theory.

Epistemology

Epicurean philosophy adopts an empirical epistemological framework, fundamentally grounded in sensory experience.

Sense Perception

Epicureans held that sensory perception itself was atom-dependent. Each object perpetually emitted particles that subsequently engaged with an observer. All sensory experiences, including sight, smell, and sound, were attributed to these emitted particles. Although the emitted atoms themselves lacked the qualities perceived by the senses, their specific emission pattern induced the observer's experience of those sensations (e.g., particles causing the perception of red were not inherently red but were emitted in a way that elicited the experience of the color). Due to their rapid movement, individual atoms are not perceived distinctly but rather as a continuous sensory input.

Epicureans posited that all sensory perceptions were inherently veridical, with errors originating from the interpretations or judgments applied to these perceptions. Such judgments (hupolepsis) were subject to verification and subsequent correction through additional sensory data. For instance, an individual observing a distant tower might initially perceive it as round; however, closer inspection revealing its square shape would lead to the rectification of the initial erroneous judgment.

Criteria of Truth

Epicurus is credited with proposing three fundamental criteria for truth: sensations (aisthêsis), preconceptions (prolepsis), and emotions (pathê). Subsequently, later Epicureans are believed to have introduced a fourth criterion: "presentational applications of the mind" (phantastikai epibolai tês dianoias). Collectively, these criteria constituted the epistemological framework through which Epicureans believed knowledge was acquired.

Given the Epicurean conviction that sensations were infallible, they served as the primary and most fundamental criterion of truth. Even when sensory data appeared deceptive, the input itself was considered veridical, with errors stemming solely from the judgments formed about that input. For instance, a straight oar submerged in water appears bent. Epicureans posited that the visual impression of the oar—specifically, the atomic effluences traveling from the oar to the observer's eyes—undergoes a real shift, consequently arriving at the observer's retina in a bent configuration. The observer's error lies in presuming that the received image accurately depicts the oar's true state, rather than acknowledging a potential distortion. To avoid erroneous judgments concerning perceptible phenomena and to validate one's assessments, Epicureans advocated for achieving "clear vision" (enargeia) of the object through meticulous scrutiny. This 'clear vision' served as the epistemological justification for judgments regarding perceived entities. Enargeia is defined as a sensation of an object untainted by subjective judgments or opinions, representing a clear and unmediated perception.

Preconceptions represent an individual's foundational concepts of entities—for instance, the mental image of a horse—which are progressively established in the mind through cumulative sensory experiences. Upon the utterance of a term associated with a specific preconception, the mind spontaneously retrieves this concept into conscious thought. These preconceptions enable the formation of judgments concerning perceived phenomena. Furthermore, Epicureans employed the concept of preconceptions to circumvent the learning paradox articulated by Plato in the Meno. Plato contended that learning necessitates prior knowledge of the subject matter, without which one could not discern the successful acquisition of new information. Epicureans asserted that preconceptions furnish individuals with the requisite pre-knowledge essential for the learning process.

Emotions, or feelings (pathê), constitute the mechanism through which pleasure and pain are perceived. Analogous to sensations, they function as a mode of perception, yet they apprehend internal states rather than external objects. As documented by Diogenes Laertius, these emotions guide human actions. Pleasurable stimuli are pursued, while painful ones are actively avoided.

The concept of "presentational applications of the mind" elucidates the capacity to discuss and investigate phenomena not amenable to direct sensory perception. Impressions of such entities are received directly within the mind, bypassing conventional sensory channels. This concept was potentially introduced to account for the acquisition of knowledge regarding imperceptible entities, such as deities.

Ethics

Epicureanism grounds its ethical framework in hedonistic principles, positing pleasure as the ultimate good and pain as the ultimate evil. In contrast to philosophical traditions like Stoicism, which elevate virtue as the supreme good, Epicurus regarded virtues as instrumental yet indispensable for achieving a pleasurable existence, all originating from practical wisdom concerning optimal living. Consequently, Epicurus championed a lifestyle designed to maximize pleasure throughout one's life, albeit with moderation to avert the suffering that excessive indulgence might precipitate. Beyond the cultivation of moderate desires and virtues, he deemed the formation of friendships crucial for a pleasant life, considering it the most significant avenue to happiness. He also emphasized the study of the natural world as essential for dispelling mythological fears. Epicurean perspectives on marriage and procreation remain contentious; some scholars interpret his stance as strongly anti-marriage and anti-family unless necessitated by circumstances, while others suggest he merely cautioned against imprudent marital and child-rearing decisions when conditions were unfavorable. Furthermore, he characterized recreational sexual activity as a natural but non-essential desire, asserting it offered no benefit as it failed to alleviate pain, and one should be content with its harmlessness. Given that political engagement could foster desires disruptive to virtue and inner tranquility, such as ambition for power or fame, participation in politics was discouraged. Moreover, Epicurus endeavored to eradicate the fear of deities and death, identifying these two apprehensions as primary sources of human distress.

Pleasure

When we assert that pleasure constitutes the ultimate goal, we do not refer to the pleasures of extravagance or sensuality, as some mistakenly interpret due to ignorance, bias, or deliberate misrepresentation. Instead, by pleasure, we signify the absence of physical pain and mental disturbance. A pleasant life is not achieved through an uninterrupted series of feasts and revelries, nor through sexual indulgence, nor the enjoyment of gourmet foods from a lavish table; rather, it is attained through judicious reasoning, meticulously examining the basis of every decision and aversion, and eradicating those convictions that incite the greatest turmoil within the soul.

Epicureans possessed a highly precise conception of supreme pleasure, with their ethical system primarily emphasizing the avoidance of pain rather than the active pursuit of pleasure. They contended that pleasure achieves its zenith upon the elimination of all sources of discomfort, whether physical or psychological. Nevertheless, there are instances where enduring pain or foregoing certain pleasures becomes necessary to avert more significant suffering or to secure more profound satisfactions. To substantiate this, Epicureans posited that nature inherently directs individuals to shun pain, observing that all living creatures instinctively endeavor to minimize discomfort. Epicurean philosophy categorized pleasure into two principal types: pleasures of the body and pleasures of the mind. Pleasures of the body encompass physical sensations, such as savoring delectable food or experiencing a state of comfort devoid of pain, and are exclusively confined to the present moment. These bodily pleasures are transient, existing only during their immediate experience. In contrast, pleasures of the mind pertain to cognitive processes and mental states; examples include feelings of joy, the absence of apprehension, and agreeable recollections. Unlike bodily pleasures, mental pleasures transcend the present, extending into the past and future, as the remembrance of a past enjoyable event or the anticipation of a potentially gratifying future can both constitute pleasurable experiences. Consequently, mental pleasures are deemed superior to physical ones.

Epicurean philosophy prioritized mental gratification over physical indulgence. These forms of pleasure were subsequently categorized by Epicureans into two distinct types: kinetic pleasure and katastematic pleasure. Among the katastematic pleasures, the absence of physical pain (aponia) and the lack of mental disturbance (ataraxia) were considered paramount by Epicurus. Kinetic pleasure encompasses physical or mental gratifications derived from activity or transition. Examples of physical kinetic pleasure include consuming palatable food, satisfying desires, and the act of pain alleviation, which is inherently deemed pleasurable. Epicurus identified feelings of joy as a manifestation of mental kinetic pleasure. Conversely, katastematic pleasure denotes the contentment experienced in a state devoid of suffering. Similar to kinetic pleasures, katastematic pleasures can manifest physically, such as the absence of thirst, or mentally, exemplified by liberation from fear.

Although the pursuit of pleasure constituted the core tenet of Epicurean philosophy, this endeavor primarily focused on "static pleasures," specifically the reduction of pain, anxiety, and suffering. Consequently, Epicureans posited that the pinnacle of human pleasure was achieved through the complete eradication of all physical and mental discomfort. Therefore, the ultimate objective of Epicurean ethics was to attain a state characterized by aponia (absence of pain) and ataraxia (tranquility of mind).

Desire

Nature must be persuaded, not forced. And we will persuade nature by fulfilling the necessary desires, and the natural desires too if they cause no harm, but sharply rejecting the harmful desires.

To achieve these states, Epicureans advocated for the regulation of desires, recognizing that desire itself can frequently be a source of suffering. Such self-regulation not only fosters aponia by minimizing physical dissatisfaction but also contributes to ataraxia, as a limited number of easily satisfiable desires reduces anxiety concerning potential discomfort. Epicureans categorized desires into three distinct classes: natural and necessary, natural but not necessary, and unnatural and unnecessary.

• Natural and necessary desires are finite and universal among humans, essential for well-being, as their absence induces suffering. Their necessity stems from three fundamental requirements: the attainment of happiness, liberation from physical discomfort, and the preservation of life. Examples include friendship and scientific understanding (for dispelling myths), which fall under the first category, while sustenance, clothing, medicine, and shelter pertain to the latter two. Fulfilling these desires is considered paramount.
• Natural but not necessary desires do not alleviate pain but rather enhance the variety of pleasure. While inherently natural and generally conducive to well-being by yielding more pleasure than pain, they are not essential for pain relief and can become problematic if pursued excessively. Consequently, their fulfillment is not requisite for happiness, freedom from physical discomfort, or survival. Examples include the desire for gourmet food and drink, sexual activity, and luxurious housing. These desires are deemed acceptable to pursue, provided they cause no detriment and do not compromise the satisfaction of natural and necessary desires.
• Unnatural and unnecessary desires contradict the innate human inclination towards a good life, being both unnatural and superfluous, primarily because they tend to generate more suffering than gratification. Their detrimental nature stems from the considerable effort required for their acquisition, the anxiety associated with their pursuit, the fear of their loss, and their inherently limitless character, which precludes genuine satisfaction. Ambitions for wealth, power, or fame exemplify this category and are therefore to be eschewed.

Adherence solely to natural and necessary desires was posited by Epicurus as the pathway to achieving aponia and ataraxia, culminating in the highest state of felicity. While unnecessary desires warranted cautious consideration to prevent distress, their fulfillment was permissible if pain was avoided. Conversely, unnatural and unnecessary desires were to be entirely eradicated.

Politics

It is impossible to live a pleasant life without living wisely and well and justly, and it is impossible to live wisely and well and justly without living a pleasant life.

Epicurean philosophy conceptualized justice as fundamentally self-serving. Its intrinsic value stemmed from its perception as a reciprocal agreement designed to prevent both inflicting and receiving harm. Even if an unjust act initially escaped detection, individuals were deterred from committing it by the potential for subsequent apprehension and retribution. Both the imposition of punishment and the apprehension of its consequences were understood to induce disquietude, thereby impeding an individual's attainment of happiness.

Epicurus is recognized as an early proponent of justice as a social contract, a concept partly formulated to address societal challenges articulated in Plato's Republic. The Epicurean social contract theory posits that justice originates from mutual consensus rather than divine ordinance. He characterized justice as a collective covenant among individuals to abstain from mutual harm. The fundamental purpose of societal organization, including its legal frameworks and punitive measures, is to safeguard individuals from injury, thereby enabling their unhindered pursuit of happiness. Consequently, any legislation failing to advance human felicity is deemed unjust. His distinctive interpretation of the ethic of reciprocity diverged from alternative formulations by prioritizing the minimization of harm and the maximization of happiness for both oneself and others.

Epicurean political philosophy diverges significantly from other prominent traditions, specifically Stoicism, Platonism, and Aristotelianism. From an Epicurean perspective, all social interactions are contingent upon mutual perception, established customs, and prevailing traditions. No individual possesses intrinsic superior value or is predestined to dominate another. This egalitarian stance stems from the absence of any metaphysical foundation for the superiority of one human type over another, as all individuals are constituted by identical atomic matter and are therefore inherently equal. Furthermore, Epicureans generally advocated against direct political engagement and other forms of civic involvement. Nevertheless, Epicureanism is not entirely apolitical; certain political associations might be perceived as advantageous by some adherents. Such associations could potentially yield individual benefits, contributing to the maximization of pleasure and the mitigation of physical or psychological suffering.

Friendship

of all the things which wisdom has contrived which contribute to a blessed life, none is more important, more fruitful, than friendship

Epicurus profoundly emphasized the cultivation of friendships as foundational to a fulfilling existence. For Epicureans, the paramount ideal was the attainment of freedom from hardship and apprehension. Although such liberation might theoretically be pursued through political engagement, Epicurus maintained that political involvement would not alleviate fear, consequently advocating against a life dedicated to politics. He vigorously promoted the establishment of a community of virtuous friends, distinct from the conventional political state. This fellowship would prioritize internal matters and the principles of justice. Epicurus's views on marriage and procreation remain a subject of scholarly debate. While Epicurus himself reportedly remained unmarried, his close associate Metrodorus was married, named a son after Epicurus, and Epicurus's will included provisions for Metrodorus's daughters to marry. This ambiguity is further reflected in conflicting translations of Diogenes Laertius's 'wise man sayings,' which present divergent perspectives on whether an Epicurean sage would marry and have children, or only do so under specific circumstances. Nonetheless, Epicurean philosophy, including its stance on political engagement, demonstrates adaptability to varying circumstances. Identical strategies may not consistently prove effective in safeguarding against pain and fear. In certain contexts, establishing a family might be more advantageous, whereas in others, political participation could yield greater benefits. Ultimately, the individual Epicurean is responsible for analyzing their specific circumstances and adopting the most appropriate course of action.

Death

Epicurean philosophy fundamentally rejects the concept of immortality, positing that the soul, much like the body, is both mortal and material. Epicurus explicitly dismissed any notion of an afterlife, yet maintained that death should not be feared, asserting: "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us." This tenet gave rise to the Epicurean Epitaph, Non fui, fui, non sum, non curo ("I was not; I was; I am not; I do not care."), a phrase frequently inscribed on the gravestones of his adherents and observed on numerous ancient Roman Empire burial markers.

Gods

Epicureanism does not dispute the existence of deities; instead, it refutes their active involvement in worldly affairs. According to this philosophy, the gods exert no influence over human existence or the broader cosmos, thereby dismissing notions such as terrifying meteorological phenomena being manifestations of divine retribution. A core objective for an Epicurean is liberation from anxieties concerning the actions of these deities.

The precise mode of existence for Epicurean deities remains a subject of scholarly contention. Some academics propose that Epicureanism posits the gods as material entities existing independently of the human mind, a stance known as the realist position. Conversely, others contend that these deities exist solely as mental constructs or ideals, representing the idealist position. Adherents of the realist view interpret the Epicurean gods as physical, immortal beings composed of atoms, residing within reality but entirely distinct from it. These gods are depicted as disengaged, playing no active role, and remaining undisturbed by the cosmos, inhabiting the metakosmia, or the intermundia. In contrast, the idealist position (sometimes termed the "non-realist position" for clarity) asserts that the gods merely embody idealized forms of optimal human existence, serving as exemplars for aspirational living. This debate was reinvigorated by A. A. Long and David Sedley in their 1987 publication, The Hellenistic Philosophers, where they advocated for the idealist interpretation. Despite ongoing scholarly discussion, the realist position currently constitutes the predominant perspective.

Legacy

Later antiquity

The early Christian author Lactantius critiques Epicurus extensively in his work Divine Institutes, notably preserving what is known as the Riddle of Epicurus, or the Problem of evil. This renowned argument challenges the existence of an omnipotent and benevolent deity or deities. Such trilemma arguments—positing that if God is omnipotent and good, evil should not exist—were favored by ancient Greek skeptics. It is plausible that Lactantius, viewing Epicurus as an atheist from his Christian standpoint, erroneously attributed this argument to him. Reinhold F. Glei asserts that the argument concerning theodicy definitively originates from an academic source that is not merely non-Epicurean but actively anti-Epicurean. The earliest surviving iteration of this trilemma is found in the texts of the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus.

The term "Epikoros" in Jewish tradition figuratively denotes "a heretic," as referenced in the Mishnah, signifying an individual who forfeits a portion in the world to come. While rabbinic texts do not explicitly mention the Greek philosopher Epicurus, it is evident that this term originates from his name.

Middle Ages and Renaissance

In Dante Alighieri's seminal work, Divine Comedy, Epicureans are portrayed as heretics condemned to suffer in the sixth circle of hell. Indeed, Epicurus himself is presented as embodying the quintessential heresy.

Francis Bacon composed an apothegm pertinent to Epicureanism:

An Epicurean once boasted that numerous philosophers from other schools subsequently converted to Epicureanism, yet no Epicurean ever transitioned to another sect. To this, a philosopher from a different school retorted: "The reason is clear, for cocks can be made capons, but capons can never be made cocks."

This sentiment mirrors a statement by the Academic Sceptic philosopher Arcesilaus, who, when queried about why students from all other philosophical schools migrated to Epicureanism while no Epicureans converted away, responded: "Because men may become eunuchs, but a eunuch never becomes a man."

Modern revival

The 17th century witnessed a significant resurgence of Epicureanism, primarily through the influential writings of Pierre Gassendi, a French Franciscan priest, scientist, and philosopher, who authored two books vigorously advocating for the philosophy. Subsequently, Walter Charleton, evidently influenced by Gassendi, published multiple works on Epicureanism in English. Concurrently, Christian opposition persisted, with particularly strong critiques emanating from the Cambridge Platonists.

During the modern era, Thomas Jefferson identified himself as an adherent of Epicurean philosophy, stating:

Were time available, I would incorporate the Greek, Latin, and French texts into my concise publication, presented in parallel columns. Furthermore, I desire to append a translation of Gassendi's Syntagma concerning Epicurus's doctrines, which, despite the disparagements from the Stoics and the misrepresentations by Cicero, represents the most logical enduring system among ancient philosophies, demonstrating as much restraint from immoral excess and fostering as much virtue as the exaggerated claims of its competing schools.

Additional notable Epicureans in the modern period included Gassendi, Walter Charleton, François Bernier, Saint-Évremond, Ninon de l'Enclos, Denis Diderot, Frances Wright, and Jeremy Bentham.

In France, Michel Onfray is currently formulating a postmodern interpretation of Epicureanism, a philosophy also embraced by perfumer and restaurateur Gérald Ghislain. Stephen Greenblatt, in his 2011 publication titled The Swerve, expressed significant affinity for Epicureanism and the works of Lucretius. Furthermore, Humanistic Judaism, as a distinct religious movement, also aligns itself with the Epicurean designation.

Parallels with Eastern Philosophical Traditions

Academic researchers have identified correspondences between Epicureanism and certain Eastern philosophies, including Jainism, Charvaka, and Buddhism, which similarly underscore principles such as atomism or the absence of divine intervention. Moreover, Epicureanism shares a resemblance with Buddhism through its tenet that excessive indulgence ultimately results in profound dissatisfaction.

Common Misinterpretations

Within contemporary popular discourse, the term "Epicurean" denotes an individual who appreciates the finer aspects of life and refined sensory experiences; consequently, Epicureanism is often understood to signify a profound appreciation for, or expert enjoyment of, particularly excellent cuisine and beverages.

Given that Epicureanism asserts pleasure as the ultimate good (telos), it has historically been misconstrued, since antiquity, as a philosophy endorsing the pursuit of transient gratifications, such as sexual promiscuity and lavish dining. However, this interpretation is inaccurate. Epicurus considered ataraxia (tranquility and freedom from fear) and aponia (the absence of physical pain) to represent the pinnacle of human happiness. He also emphasized prudence as a crucial virtue, viewing excess and overindulgence as antithetical to achieving ataraxia and aponia. Nevertheless, Epicurus did attribute "the good," and even "wisdom and culture," to the "pleasure of the stomach."

Although Epicurus advocated for moderation in dietary habits, he was not entirely opposed to occasional indulgence, or "moderation in moderation." His philosophical community, known as "The Garden" due to its establishment in what was likely a kitchen garden, also gained recognition for its Eikas (from the Greek εἰκάς, derived from εἴκοσῐ eíkosi, meaning "twenty"). These were feasts held on the twentieth day of the Greek month, a day otherwise consecrated to the god Apollo and coinciding with the concluding day of the initiation rites for the mysteries of Demeter.

The Epicurea Collection

The Epicurea represents a compilation of texts, fragments, and testimonials attributed to Epicurus, meticulously assembled by Hermann Usener in 1887. This scholarly work presents a comprehensive collection of Epicurus's writings, elucidating the core values and tenets of ancient Epicurean philosophy.

Notes

References

Primary Sources

•  Laërtius, Diogenes. "Epicurus" . Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. Vol. 2:10. Translated by Hicks, Robert Drew (Two-volume ed.). Loeb Classical Library.Secondary Sources
  • Annas, Julia (1995), The Morality of Happiness, Oxford University PressFurley, David J. (1999), Routledge History of Philosophy, Volume II: From Aristotle to Augustine, RoutledgeO'Keefe, Tim (2010). Epicureanism. University of California Press.Reale, Giovanni (1985), A History of Ancient Philosophy: The Systems of the Hellenistic Age, SUNY PressWilson, Catherine (2015). Epicureanism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199688326. OCLC 917374685.
    • Epicureans on PhilPapers
    • The complete text of Hermann Usener's Epicurea (1887), available in both Greek and Latin, can be found at the Internet Archive.
    • An English translation of the fragments from Usener's Epicurea is accessible via attalus.org.