Environmentalism represents a comprehensive philosophy, ideology, and social movement focused on sustaining life, habitats, and their surrounding environments. While this movement primarily addresses the ecological and nature-centric dimensions of green ideology and political discourse, ecologism integrates the principles of social ecology with environmental concerns. It is noteworthy that ecologism is more frequently employed in continental European languages, whereas environmentalism is more common in English, although these terms possess subtly divergent connotations.
Environmentalism is a broad philosophy, ideology, and social movement about supporting life, habitats, and surroundings. While environmentalism focuses on the environmental and nature-related aspects of green ideology and politics, ecologism combines the ideology of social ecology and environmentalism. Ecologism is a term more commonly used in continental European languages, while environmentalism is more commonly used in English, but the words have slightly different connotations.
Environmentalism champions the preservation, restoration, and enhancement of the natural environment, including vital Earth system components and processes like climate regulation. It is often characterized as a movement dedicated to pollution control and the safeguarding of plant and animal biodiversity. Consequently, foundational concepts such as land ethics, environmental ethics, biodiversity, ecology, and the biophilia hypothesis are central to its tenets. The broader environmentalist movement incorporates diverse strategies for tackling ecological challenges, exemplified by free-market environmentalism, evangelical environmentalism, and the environmental conservation movement.
Fundamentally, environmentalism endeavors to establish a harmonious equilibrium between human societies and the intricate natural systems upon which they rely, ensuring a suitable level of sustainability for all constituent elements. The precise methodologies and resultant outcomes for achieving this balance remain subjects of debate, with numerous practical manifestations for expressing environmental concerns. While environmentalism and its associated concerns are frequently symbolized by the color green, this visual association has been co-opted by marketing industries for the practice termed greenwashing.
Environmentalism faces opposition from anti-environmentalism, a perspective asserting that the Earth's resilience is greater than some environmentalists contend. This counter-movement often characterizes environmentalism as an overreaction to anthropogenic climate change or as an impediment to human progress.
Definitions
Environmentalism refers to a social movement that endeavors to shape political processes through lobbying, activism, and educational initiatives, with the objective of safeguarding natural resources and ecosystems. As a movement, it addresses extensive domains of systemic injustice, such as the conversion of ecosystems and natural resources into waste, the disposal of waste in marginalized communities, atmospheric and aquatic pollution, inadequate infrastructure, and the exposure of living organisms to toxic substances. Given these multifaceted concerns, the environmental movement is broadly categorized into key areas of focus: environmental science, environmental activism, environmental advocacy, and environmental justice.
An environmentalist is an individual who advocates for the natural environment and the sustainable stewardship of its resources, promoting changes in public policy or individual conduct. Such advocacy may encompass supporting informed consumption, conservation initiatives, investment in renewable resources, enhancing efficiencies within the materials economy, adopting novel accounting frameworks like ecological economics, fostering renewed connections with non-human life, or even choosing to limit family size to mitigate resource consumption and pressure.
Through diverse methodologies, including grassroots activism and public protests, environmentalists and their organizations strive to amplify the influence of the natural world within human decision-making processes.
Broadly, environmentalists champion the sustainable management of resources and the protection—along with restoration, where requisite—of the natural environment, achieved through modifications in public policy and individual conduct. Acknowledging humanity's integral role within ecosystems, the movement's core tenets revolve around ecology, public health, and human rights.
The environmental movement, a designation occasionally encompassing conservation and green movements, constitutes a multifaceted scientific, social, and political phenomenon. Despite its representation by a wide array of organizations, the integration of environmentalism into educational curricula has resulted in the environmental movement attracting a comparatively younger demographic than typically observed in other social movements.
History
Ancient History and the Middle Ages
Throughout history, environmental protection has been a recurring concern, manifesting in various forms across different global regions. Early concepts of environmental protectionism are evident in Jainism, an ancient Indian religion revitalized by Mahavira in the 6th century BC. Jainist principles align significantly with fundamental tenets of environmental activism, particularly the nonviolent preservation of life, which establishes a robust ecological ethos for global environmental stewardship. Mahavira's doctrines emphasizing the symbiosis among all living entities, alongside the five elements—earth, water, air, fire, and space—remain central to contemporary environmental philosophy.
In West Asia, Caliph Abu Bakr issued directives to his army around 630 AD, instructing them to "Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire," and to "Slay not any of the enemy's flock, save for your food." From the 9th to the 13th centuries, numerous Islamic medical treatises explored environmentalism and environmental science, addressing concerns such as pollution. Notable authors of these works included Al-Kindi, Qusta ibn Luqa, Al-Razi, Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, Avicenna, Ali ibn Ridwan, Ibn Jumay, Isaac Israeli ben Solomon, Abd-el-latif, Ibn al-Quff, and Ibn al-Nafis. Their writings encompassed various pollution-related topics, including atmospheric and aquatic contamination, soil degradation, and the improper management of municipal solid waste. Furthermore, these treatises often incorporated evaluations of specific locations' environmental consequences.
Within the Catholic religious tradition, Friar Francis of Assisi articulated a profound mystical reverence for the natural environment as early as 1224. His lyrical poem, Canticle of the Sun, provided both an ethical and spiritual framework for environmental stewardship. Francis advocated for humanity to acknowledge a divine presence within the natural world, simultaneously challenging human dominion over the environment. He personified God's living presence throughout creation, imploring humanity to express gratitude for this presence by offering praise through "...Sister Mother Earth, who sustains us and governs us and who produces varied fruits with coloured flowers and herbs.. Praised be You, my Lord, through Brother Wind, and through the air, cloudy and serene, and every kind of weather through which you give sustenance to Your creatures."
In Europe, King Edward I of England prohibited the burning and sale of "sea-coal" in London in 1272 via royal proclamation, following widespread complaints about its smoke. This fuel, prevalent in London due to local wood scarcity, acquired its name because it was often found washed ashore and transported by wheelbarrow. King Philip II of Spain was recognized for his appreciation of nature, leading historian Henry Kamen to identify him as one of Europe's earliest ecological monarchs. In 1582, Philip II issued decrees to conserve Spanish forests, emphasizing the significant detriment their depletion would cause to future generations.
Industrial Revolution
At the advent of steam and electricity the muse of history holds her nose and shuts her eyes (H. G. Wells 1918).
The environmental movement originated as a direct response to escalating atmospheric smoke pollution during the Industrial Revolution. The proliferation of large factories and the corresponding surge in coal consumption led to unprecedented levels of air pollution in industrial hubs. Post-1900, significant volumes of industrial chemical discharges further exacerbated the burden of untreated human waste. The initial comprehensive modern environmental legislation emerged with Britain's Alkali Acts, enacted in 1863, which aimed to control the harmful air pollution, specifically gaseous hydrochloric acid, generated by the Leblanc process for soda ash production.
In industrial urban centers, particularly after 1890, local experts and reformers spearheaded efforts to identify environmental degradation and pollution. They initiated grassroots movements to advocate for and implement reforms, with primary attention typically directed towards mitigating water and air pollution.
19th century
The late nineteenth century witnessed the enactment of the initial wildlife conservation statutes. Between 1872 and 1903, zoologist Alfred Newton published a series of investigations into the Desirability of establishing a 'Close-time' for the preservation of indigenous animals. His advocacy for legislation to protect animals from hunting during their mating seasons led to the formation of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and influenced the passage of the Sea Birds Preservation Act in 1869, which is recognized as the world's first nature protection law.
In the United States, the conservation movement emerged in the late nineteenth century, primarily driven by concerns for protecting the natural resources of the West, with key philosophical contributions from individuals such as John Muir and Henry David Thoreau. Thoreau investigated the human relationship with nature by adopting a simple, close-to-nature lifestyle, publishing his experiences in the book Walden, which advocates for an intimate connection with the natural world. Muir developed a belief in nature's inherent rights, particularly after extensive hiking in Yosemite Valley and studying its ecology and geology. He successfully lobbied Congress for the formation of Yosemite National Park and subsequently established the Sierra Club in 1892. These conservationist principles, alongside the conviction in nature's inherent rights, became the foundational elements of modern environmentalism.
The predominant theory regarding the origins of early environmentalism suggests its emergence as a localized response to the adverse impacts of industrialization within Western nations and communities. Concerning conservation efforts, a widespread view posits that the movement began as a predominantly elite concern in North America, focusing on the preservation of local natural areas. However, a less prevalent perspective attributes the roots of early environmentalism to a growing public concern about the influence of Western economic forces, particularly in connection with colonization, on tropical environments. Richard Grove, in a 1990 publication, emphasized that insufficient attention has been given to the significance of the colonial experience, especially the European colonial experience, in shaping early European environmentalism.
The Twentieth Century
In 1916, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson established the National Park Service. Pioneers of the environmental movement advocated for more efficient and professional management of natural resources, driven by the belief that the destruction of forests, fertile soil, minerals, wildlife, and water resources would lead to societal decline.
During the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, several events dramatically illustrated the extensive environmental damage caused by human actions. In 1954, a hydrogen bomb test at Bikini Atoll exposed the 23-man crew of the Japanese fishing vessel Lucky Dragon 5 to radioactive fallout. This incident, known as Castle Bravo, marked the detonation of the largest thermonuclear device by the United States and was the first in a series of high-yield thermonuclear weapon design tests. Subsequently, in 1967, the oil tanker Torrey Canyon ran aground off the coast of Cornwall, and in 1969, an oil spill occurred from an offshore well in California's Santa Barbara Channel. By 1971, the conclusion of a lawsuit in Japan drew international attention to the effects of decades of mercury poisoning on the population of Minamata.
Concurrently, emerging scientific research drew renewed attention to both existing and hypothetical threats to the environment and humanity. Among these contributions was Paul R. Ehrlich's 1968 book, The Population Bomb, which revitalized Malthusian concerns regarding the impact of exponential population growth. Biologist Barry Commoner initiated a debate concerning growth, affluence, and "flawed technology." Additionally, in 1972, the Club of Rome, an association of scientists and political leaders, published their report The Limits to Growth, which highlighted the increasing pressure on natural resources stemming from human activities.
Rachel Carson's 1962 book, Silent Spring, represented another significant literary force in promoting the environmental movement. The work addressed the decline of bird populations due to DDT, an insecticide and pollutant, and critiqued human attempts to control nature through synthetic substances. Carson's core message urged readers to identify the complex and fragile nature of ecosystems and the threats facing populations. The book achieved substantial commercial success, selling over two million copies.
The publication meticulously documented the ecological repercussions of the indiscriminate DDT spraying across the United States and critically assessed the rationale behind releasing substantial chemical quantities into the environment without a comprehensive understanding of their effects on human health and ecosystems. The book posited that DDT and other pesticides could induce cancer and that their agricultural application posed a significant ecological hazard, particularly to avian populations.
The ensuing public apprehension precipitated the establishment of the United States Environmental Protection Agency in 1970, which subsequently prohibited the agricultural use of DDT in the U.S. in 1972. Nevertheless, the restricted application of DDT for disease vector control persists in certain global regions and remains a contentious issue. The book's profound legacy was to cultivate a significantly heightened awareness of environmental concerns and to stimulate interest in anthropogenic impacts on the environment. This burgeoning environmental interest extended to issues such as atmospheric pollution and petroleum spills, fostering further growth in environmental advocacy. Concurrently, new advocacy groups emerged, notably Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth (US), alongside prominent local organizations like the Wyoming Outdoor Council, founded in 1967. Greenpeace, established in 1971, operated on the conviction that political advocacy and legislative measures were either ineffective or inefficient, instead championing non-violent direct action. Between 1962 and 1998, the environmental movement saw the formation of 772 national organizations within the United States.
During the 1970s, the environmental movement experienced significant global acceleration, emerging as a notable offshoot of the counterculture movement.
The pioneering political entities globally to campaign primarily on ecological concerns were the United Tasmania Group in Tasmania, Australia, and the Values Party of New Zealand. Europe's inaugural green party was the Popular Movement for the Environment, established in 1972 in the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel. The first national green party in Europe was PEOPLE, founded in Britain in February 1973, which subsequently evolved into the Ecology Party and then the Green Party.
Environmental protection also extended its significance to the developing world; the Chipko movement emerged in India, influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and led by Chandi Prasad Bhatt, Sunderlal Bahuguna, and various local leaders. They initiated non-violent opposition to deforestation by physically embracing trees, a practice that popularized the term "tree huggers." Chipko etymologically signifies an open call to hug and has become a widely recognized and frequently emulated tactic in public protests aimed at preserving trees. Their peaceful protest methods and the slogan "ecology is permanent economy" proved profoundly influential.
A significant landmark in the movement was the establishment of Earth Day. The inaugural observance of Earth Day occurred on April 22, 1970, dedicated to fostering awareness of environmental issues. On March 21, 1971, United Nations Secretary-General U Thant articulated the concept of "spaceship Earth" on Earth Day, thereby underscoring the planet's provision of ecosystem services and humanity's corresponding obligation to protect it, and by extension, ourselves. Earth Day is now globally coordinated by the Earth Day Network and is celebrated annually in over 192 countries. Its founder, former Wisconsin Senator Gaylord Nelson, was prompted to conceive this day of environmental education and awareness after witnessing the 1969 oil spill off the coast of Santa Barbara.
In 1972, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was convened in Stockholm, marking the first instance where representatives from multiple governments united for deliberations concerning the state of the global environment. This event constituted a pivotal moment in the evolution of international environmental politics. The conference directly precipitated the creation of governmental environmental agencies and the UN Environment Program.
By the mid-1970s, a widespread sentiment emerged that humanity was on the precipice of an ecological catastrophe. The back-to-the-land movement began to form, and principles of environmental ethics intertwined with anti-Vietnam War sentiments and other political issues. Adherents of this movement often lived outside conventional societal norms and espoused more radical environmental theories, such as deep ecology. Concurrently, mainstream environmentalism gained significant momentum with the promulgation of the Endangered Species Act in 1973 and the ratification of CITES in 1975. Substantial amendments were also implemented for the United States Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act.
The 21st Century
Internationally, environmental concerns were addressed at the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, which saw participation from 113 nations. This pivotal meeting led to the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the subsequent United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992. Additional international entities supporting the formulation of environmental policies encompass the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (an integral component of NAFTA), the European Environment Agency (EEA), and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
Environmentalism persistently evolves to address emerging challenges such as global warming, overpopulation, genetic engineering, and plastic pollution. Nevertheless, a 2013 study indicated a significant decrease in public engagement with 19 distinct environmental issues within the United States.
Beginning in the 2000s, the environmental movement has increasingly prioritized climate change as a paramount concern. As climate change issues gained broader public recognition, exemplified by the perceived links between global warming and Hurricane Katrina, as well as Al Gore's 2006 documentary film An Inconvenient Truth, a growing number of environmental organizations reoriented their initiatives. In the United States, 2007 marked the largest grassroots environmental demonstration in recent history, known as Step It Up 2007, which involved rallies across more than 1,400 communities and all 50 states, advocating for tangible global warming solutions.
Extensive public awareness and the widespread organization of school climate strikes commenced following Swedish schoolgirl Greta Thunberg's protest in August 2018 outside the Swedish Riksdag (parliament). The September 2019 climate strikes were reportedly the most extensive climate demonstrations globally. A 2019 survey revealed that climate breakdown was perceived as the most critical global issue in seven of the eight surveyed countries.
Numerous religious organizations and individual churches currently implement programs and initiatives focused on environmental stewardship. This religious engagement frequently draws support from scriptural interpretations.
Key Themes
A significant philosophical current within environmentalism originates from the conservation movement. Conservationists are primarily focused on ensuring the environment remains in a superior condition to its initial state, independent of human intervention. This movement is historically linked to the nascent stages of the environmental movement during the 19th and 20th centuries.
The integration of environmentalism into a discrete political ideology resulted in the formation of political entities termed "green parties," which commonly adopt a leftist political stance on interconnected matters of environmental and social welfare, constituting what is known as green politics.
Bright Green Environmentalism
Evangelical Environmentalism
Evangelical environmentalism represents an environmental movement within the United States where certain Evangelicals underscore biblical mandates regarding humanity's stewardship role and the consequent responsibility for the preservation of Creation. Although the movement addresses various environmental concerns, it is predominantly recognized for its approach to climate action, framed within a biblically grounded theological perspective. Its foundation in a particular religious doctrine renders this movement contentious among certain non-Christian environmentalists.
Free Market Environmentalism
Free market environmentalism posits that the free market, property rights, and tort law constitute the most effective mechanisms for safeguarding environmental health and sustainability. This theory regards environmental stewardship as an inherent principle, advocating for the removal of polluters and other detrimental actors through individual and collective legal actions.
Labor Environmentalism
The concept of labor environmentalism denotes the initiatives undertaken by trade unions to formulate environmental policies, champion ecological concerns, and engage in partnerships with environmental organizations. Trade unions and international organizations, such as the International Labour Organization, are confronted with the challenge of simultaneously navigating the frameworks of global capitalism and the paradigm of economic growth, while also addressing the pervasive global ecological crisis.
Trade unions originated the concept of a "just transition" to foster green employment opportunities. This framework, particularly relevant to climate change mitigation, emphasizes the intrinsic link between energy transitions and equitable decarbonization strategies that align with broader developmental objectives.
Radical Environmentalism
Organizational Structures
Environmental organizations operate across various scales, including global, regional, national, and local levels, and can be either governmental or non-governmental (NGO) entities. Environmental advocacy is prevalent in nearly every nation, with many community development and social justice groups also integrating environmental issues into their core missions.
Certain U.S. environmental organizations, such as the Natural Resources Defense Council and the Environmental Defense Fund, primarily engage in litigation, a strategy deemed highly effective within the American legal system. Conversely, other groups, including the U.S.-based National Wildlife Federation, Earth Day, National Cleanup Day, The Nature Conservancy, and The Wilderness Society, alongside international organizations like the World Wide Fund for Nature and Friends of the Earth, focus on public education, participation in legislative hearings, lobbying efforts, organizing protests, and acquiring land for conservation purposes.
More radical organizations, including Greenpeace, Earth First!, and the Earth Liberation Front, have directly challenged activities they deem environmentally detrimental. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has classified some of these groups as potential terrorism threats.
Critiques
Early 20th-century environmentalism primarily emphasized wilderness protection and wildlife preservation. These objectives largely mirrored the interests of the movement's initial supporters, who were predominantly white, middle- and upper-class individuals. Their perspective on preservation often overlooked the extensive, centuries-long stewardship by indigenous communities, who had maintained ecological balance without causing the environmental degradation that these settler-colonial "environmentalists" subsequently aimed to address. Many mainstream environmental organizations continue to operate based on these foundational principles. Consequently, numerous low-income minority groups have reported feeling marginalized or adversely affected by the movement. A notable illustration of this sentiment is the Southwest Organizing Project's (SWOP) "Letter to the Group of 10," dispatched by local environmental justice activists to prominent environmental organizations. This letter contended that the environmental movement's intense focus on natural preservation and cleanup neglected the detrimental community impacts, such as reduced job growth, associated with these efforts. Furthermore, the "Not In My Backyard" (NIMBY) phenomenon has led to the relocation of Locally Unwanted Land Uses (LULUs) from affluent neighborhoods to impoverished communities with significant minority populations. This dynamic results in vulnerable communities, possessing limited political influence, being disproportionately exposed to hazardous waste and toxins. This trend has been termed the "Place In Blacks' Backyards" (PIBBY) principle, or at minimum, the "Place In Minorities' Backyards" (PIMBY) principle, a concept substantiated by a 1987 study conducted by the United Church of Christ.
Consequently, certain minority groups have perceived the environmental movement as elitist. This environmental elitism has been observed in three distinct manifestations:
- Compositional – Environmental advocates predominantly originate from middle and upper socioeconomic strata.
- Ideological – Policy reforms primarily benefit the movement's adherents while imposing burdens on non-participating populations.
- Impact – The implemented reforms exhibit "regressive social impacts," disproportionately favoring environmentalists and adversely affecting underrepresented communities.
A significant segment of environmentalists advocates for the urgent restriction or minimization of human intervention in natural systems, citing benefits for life, the planet, or humanity itself. In contrast, environmental skeptics and anti-environmentalists dispute the necessity of such measures. It is also possible for an individual to identify as an environmentalist while simultaneously believing that human "interference" with "nature" should be increased. However, a potential risk exists that the transition from emotionally driven environmentalism to a more technical management of natural resources and hazards could diminish human connection to nature, thereby reducing public commitment to environmental preservation. Increasingly, conventional conservation discourse is being superseded by restoration methodologies and expansive landscape initiatives designed to achieve more comprehensive ecological outcomes.
Others advocate for a balanced approach that integrates profound environmental stewardship with scientifically informed decision-making regarding human activities impacting the environment. Such a methodology aims to circumvent the emotionalism often criticized in movements like anti-GMO activism, thereby preserving scientific integrity. For instance, while tree planting can be emotionally gratifying, it necessitates careful consideration of ecological implications, including effects on water cycles and the potential introduction of non-native, possibly invasive, species.
Anti-environmentalism
Environmentalists
An environmentalist is defined as an individual committed to environmental protection. Such a person typically supports the objectives of the environmental movement, which is characterized as "a political and ethical movement that seeks to improve and protect the quality of the natural environment through changes to environmentally harmful human activities." Consequently, an environmentalist either actively participates in or adheres to the philosophical tenets of environmentalism or its associated ideologies.
The environmental movement encompasses diverse subcommunities, each distinguished by unique approaches, focal points, and emergent identities. Critics occasionally employ informal or pejorative labels, such as "greenie" and "tree-hugger," to describe environmentalists, with some segments of the public associating these terms primarily with more radical factions. Prominent environmentalists who have championed environmental protection and conservation include:
Violence Against Activists
During the early 1990s, numerous environmental activists in the United States were subjected to violent assaults. Globally, over 100 environmental activists are murdered annually, with a significant proportion of recent fatalities occurring in Brazil, particularly among those opposing logging operations in the Amazon rainforest.
In 2014, 116 environmental activists were assassinated, a figure that rose to 185 in 2015, translating to over two assassinations per week in 2014 and three per week in 2015. Between 2016 and early 2018, more than 200 environmental activists were murdered globally. A notable incident in 2020 involved the killing of several rangers by poaching squads in the Congo Rainforest. Such occurrences are frequent and contribute substantially to the overall death toll.
A 2022 report by Global Witness indicated that over 1,700 land and environmental defenders were killed in the preceding decade, averaging approximately one fatality every two days. Brazil, Colombia, the Philippines, and Mexico were identified as the most perilous nations for these activists. Reports of violence and intimidation against environmental activists have also emerged from Central and Eastern Europe. Specifically, anti-logging activists have been killed in Romania, and in Belarus, the government has arrested several environmental activists, disbanded their organizations, and withdrawn from the Aarhus Convention.
In Popular Culture
- Miss Earth, a prominent member of the "Big Four" international beauty pageants (alongside Miss Universe, Miss International, and Miss World), uniquely distinguishes itself by actively promoting environmental awareness. The titleholder serves as a spokesperson for the Miss Earth Foundation, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and various other environmental organizations.
- Environmentalism also leverages artistic expression to heighten public awareness regarding environmental degradation. A notable example is "trashion," an art form that repurposes waste materials into clothing, jewelry, and household items. Marina DeBris, a prominent trashion artist, specifically utilizes ocean and beach refuse to create designs for fundraising and educational initiatives.