Universalism

Universalism denotes a philosophical and theological framework positing that certain ideas possess universal application or relevance.

A core principle of universalism is the conviction in a singular, fundamental truth. This inherent truth is considered to transcend national, cultural, or religious confines and interpretations. Consequently, a self-identified universalist community often highlights the shared principles across various religions and embraces individuals inclusively.

Furthermore, universalism can signify the endeavor to unify all humanity, transcending geographical and other divisions, under a common set of universal values. It also encompasses the implementation of universalist frameworks, such as human rights or international law.

Universalism has drawn influence from rational theological systems like Unitarianism, as well as contemporary New Age spiritual doctrines, including practices such as Yoga and meditation originating from Hinduism. These influences have, in turn, shaped modern Western spirituality.

Christian universalism posits that all individuals will ultimately attain salvation, either religiously or spiritually, a concept frequently termed universal reconciliation.

Philosophy

Philosophical Universalism

Within philosophical discourse, universality represents the proposition that objective, discoverable universal facts exist, contrasting with relativism, which contends that all facts are contingent upon individual perspectives.

Moral Universalism

Moral universalism, alternatively known as moral objectivism or universal morality, constitutes the meta-ethical stance asserting that a particular ethical system possesses universal applicability. This system encompasses all individuals, irrespective of their culture, race, sex, religion, nationality, sexual orientation, or any other differentiating characteristic. Moral universalism stands in opposition to both moral nihilism and moral relativism. Nevertheless, not every manifestation of moral universalism is absolutist, nor does it inherently endorse monism. Numerous universalist frameworks, including utilitarianism, are non-absolutist. Conversely, other forms, such as those conceptualized by Isaiah Berlin, may advocate for pluralist ideals.

Religion

Baháʼí Faith

According to the tenets of the Baháʼí Faith, a singular divine entity has dispatched all historical founders of global religions through a process of progressive revelation. Consequently, the principal world religions are regarded as divinely originated and continuous in their fundamental purpose. This perspective posits a unity among the founders of world religions, yet each revelation introduces a more advanced set of teachings within human history, none being syncretic. Furthermore, Baháʼí doctrine affirms that God has consistently unveiled the divine purpose through messengers, prophets, masters, and sages in every nation and among every people since antiquity.

Central to this universal perspective within the Baháʼí Faith is the principle of human unity. Baháʼí teachings assert that, as all humans are created in the image of God, no distinctions are made by God based on race, color, or religion. Therefore, given the inherent equality of all human beings, they are entitled to equal opportunities and treatment. This Baháʼí viewpoint thus advocates for the unity of humanity, encouraging individuals to adopt a world-embracing vision and to extend their love to the entire world rather than solely to their own nation.

This doctrine, however, distinguishes unity from uniformity; instead, Baháʼí scriptures champion the principle of unity in diversity, which values the inherent variety within the human race. When applied globally, this cooperative outlook among the world's peoples and nations culminates in a vision affirming the feasibility of progress in international relations toward, and the ultimate inevitability of, global peace.

Buddhism

Modern scholars have applied the term "Universalism" to various facets of Buddhist philosophy.

The concept of universal salvation is fundamental to the Mahayana school of Buddhism. A defining characteristic of Mahayana Buddhism is the belief that all sentient beings possess Buddha nature, thereby enabling them to aspire to become bodhisattvas—beings committed to the path of Buddhahood. This inherent capacity is considered universal among all beings. The Buddhist studies scholar Jan Nattier has designated this concept as "bodhisattva universalism."

The concept of universal Buddha nature has received diverse interpretations within Buddhism. These range from the belief that all sentient beings possess Buddha nature and therefore can attain Buddhahood, to the more definitive assertion that, owing to their inherent Buddha nature, all beings will inevitably achieve Buddhahood. Certain East Asian Mahayana Buddhist traditions further expanded this theory to encompass plants and inanimate phenomena. Prominent thinkers, such as Kukai, even advanced the notion that the entire cosmos constitutes the Buddha's physical manifestation.

The highly influential Mahayana scripture, the Lotus Sutra, is frequently regarded as advocating for the universality of Buddhahood, the comprehensive nature of the Buddha's teachings, and the inherent equality of all living beings. Furthermore, Mahayana Buddhism champions universal compassion for all sentient beings, considering them equally worthy of such empathy. The doctrine of the One Vehicle, which posits that all Buddhist paths ultimately converge on Buddhahood, is similarly often interpreted as a universalist principle.

Practitioners of Pure Land Buddhism identify Amitabha Buddha as a universal savior. The Pure Land Sutras recount that, prior to attaining Buddhahood, Amitabha made a vow to liberate all beings. Some Pure Land scholars assert that all beings will ultimately achieve salvation through the efforts of Amida Buddha. Consequently, Pure Land Buddhism is frequently perceived as embodying a form of Buddhist universalism, drawing parallels with Christian universalism. This comparative aspect has also been noted by Christian theologians, including Karl Barth.

Chinese Buddhism cultivated a distinct form of universalism, conceptualizing Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism as diverse manifestations of a singular, overarching truth.

Within Western Buddhism, "Universalism" can also denote a nonsectarian and eclectic approach that prioritizes ecumenism among various Buddhist schools. Julius A. Goldwater, an American clergyman, was a notable Buddhist figure who advocated for a contemporary form of Buddhist Universalism. Goldwater believed that Buddhism transcended specific local contexts and cultures, leading his personal practice to become progressively eclectic. He founded the nonsectarian Buddhist Brotherhood of America, an organization dedicated to promoting ecumenical and nonsectarian Buddhism, while also incorporating Protestant terminology and concepts.

A similar aspiration to cultivate a more universalist and nonsectarian expression of Buddhism was evident among certain modernist Japanese Buddhist authors, notably the influential D.T. Suzuki.

Christianity

The core tenet of Christian universalism is universal reconciliation, positing that all individuals will ultimately attain salvation and achieve reconciliation with God. Through the grace and actions of the Lord Jesus Christ, they are destined to enter God's heavenly kingdom. Christian universalists contend that an everlasting hell does not exist, although most acknowledge the possibility of a temporary purgatorial state, and assert that perpetual torment was not a teaching of Jesus. They cite historical evidence indicating that numerous early Church Fathers held universalist views and attribute the concept of eternal damnation in hell to mistranslation. Furthermore, they reference various scriptural passages to argue that the notion of an eternal hell lacks biblical or historical support in either Judaism or early Christianity.

Universalists frequently invoke numerous biblical passages that allude to the salvation of all beings, including pronouncements by Jesus in John 12:31-32 and by Paul in Romans 5:18-19. Moreover, they contend that an eternal hell is inherently unjust and fundamentally incompatible with the nature and characteristics of a benevolent God.

The tenets of Christian universalism are largely consistent with the fundamental principles of Christianity, as they do not contravene any core affirmations articulated in the Nicene Creed. Specifically, universalists frequently underscore the subsequent doctrines:

• God is the benevolent Parent of all humanity.
• Jesus Christ elucidates the divine nature and character of God, serving as the spiritual guide for humanity.
• Humanity is endowed with an immortal soul that persists beyond death, or alternatively, a mortal soul destined for resurrection and preservation by God. This soul, in either conception, will not be utterly annihilated by the divine.
• Sin incurs adverse repercussions for the individual, either in their earthly existence or in the eschatological realm. Divine chastisements for transgressions are universally understood as corrective and restorative. These punitive measures are not eternal, nor do they culminate in the perpetual annihilation of the soul. A segment of Christian universalists posits the concept of a Purgatorial Hell, conceptualized as a transient realm of purification prerequisite to entry into Heaven.

The Universalist General Convention, subsequently known as the Universalist Church of America, formally endorsed the Five Principles in 1899, which included: a belief in God, Jesus Christ, the inherent immortality of the human soul, the undeniable reality of sin, and the doctrine of universal reconciliation.

History

Scholars advocating for Universalism, such as George T. Knight, have asserted that this theological perspective enjoyed considerable acceptance among early Christian theologians. Prominent among these figures were the Alexandrian scholar Origen and the Christian theologian Clement of Alexandria. Both Origen and Clement incorporated the concept of a non-eternal Hell into their doctrinal frameworks. This infernal realm was conceived as remedial, serving as a locus for the expiation of sins prior to an individual's admission into Heaven.

From 1648 to 1697, the English activist Gerrard Winstanley, the writer Richard Coppin, and the dissenter Jane Leade independently propagated the doctrine of universal salvation for all humanity. These tenets subsequently disseminated across 18th-century France and America through the efforts of George de Benneville. Adherents to this doctrine in America eventually coalesced into what became known as the Universalist Church of America. The inaugural Universalist Church in America was established by the minister John Murray. The 18th century in North America was characterized by extensive theological discourse between two distinct Christian universalist factions: universal restorationism, which affirmed post-mortem punishment, and ultra-universalism, which denied it.

The Greek term apocatastasis has been associated by some scholars with the tenets of Christian universalism; however, the core of this doctrine fundamentally involves the restitution or restoration of all sinful entities to God and to a state of divine blessedness. Its application within early Patristic literature, however, exhibits distinct nuances.

Universalist theology

Universalist theology is fundamentally predicated upon historical precedents, scriptural interpretations, and specific theological assumptions regarding the divine nature. The 2019 work, That All Shall Be Saved, authored by Orthodox Christian theologian David Bentley Hart, presents arguments derived from these three domains, with particular emphasis on those pertaining to the nature of God. Thomas Whittemore, a proponent of Christian ultra-universalism, authored the volume 100 Scriptural Proofs that Jesus Christ Will Save All Mankind, which cites both Old and New Testament passages to substantiate the Universalist perspective.

Christian universalists frequently reference specific biblical passages, including Luke 3:6, John 17:2, 1 Corinthians 15:22, 2 Peter 3:9, 1 Timothy 2:3–6, 1 Timothy 4:10, 1 John 2:2, Romans 5:18, and Romans 11:32.

Questions of Biblical Translation

Christian universalists contend that erroneous translations of the Greek term αιών (literally 'age,' frequently interpreted as 'eternity') and its adjectival derivative αἰώνιος (commonly rendered as 'eternal' or 'everlasting') have fostered the theological concepts of an interminable hell and the notion of perpetual damnation for certain individuals. For instance, Revelation 14:11 states that "the smoke of their torment goes up εἰς αἰῶνας αἰώνων," which, while literally translating to "until ages of ages," is frequently paraphrased in English versions as "forever and ever."

This Greek etymon serves as the linguistic progenitor for the modern English term 'eon,' which denotes an extended temporal duration, epoch, or age.

Nineteenth-century theologian Marvin Vincent extensively discussed the term aion, particularly addressing its presumed connotations of "eternal" or "temporal" duration:

Aion, transliterated aeon, is a period of longer or shorter duration, having a beginning and an end, and complete in itself. [...] Neither the noun nor the adjective, in themselves, carry the sense of endless or everlasting."

Several scholars have posited that, in certain contexts, the adjective may not denote temporal duration but rather convey a qualitative attribute. For example, Dr. David Bentley Hart renders Matthew 25:46 as: "And these will go to the chastening of that Age, but the just to the life of that Age." According to this interpretation, Jesus' statement does not primarily specify the duration of life and punishment, but rather their inherent nature, characterizing them as pertaining "to the age [to come]" rather than to earthly existence or retribution. Dr. Thomas Talbott further elaborates:

The New Testament authors consequently adopted the term aiōnios as an eschatological descriptor, serving as a concise reference to the future age's realities. This usage effectively integrated the literal meaning of "pertaining to an age" with the theological implication of "manifesting God's presence distinctively."

Dr. Ken Vincent observes that the translation of "aion" into the Latin Vulgate resulted in "aeternam," signifying "eternal." Similarly, Dr. Ilaria Ramelli elucidates:

The erroneous translation and interpretation of αἰώνιος as "eternal"—a semantic conflation already present in Latin where both αἰώνιος and ἀΐδιος are rendered aeternus—significantly fostered the emergence of doctrines such as "eternal damnation" and the "eternity of hell."

Several English translations diverge from rendering αἰώνιος as "eternal" or "everlasting," including Young's Literal Translation, which uses "age-during"; the Weymouth New Testament, which employs "of the ages"; the Concordant Literal Version, which translates it as "eonian"; Rotherham's Emphasized Bible, opting for "age-abiding"; and Hart's New Testament, which uses "of that Age," among others.

Hinduism

David Frawley asserts that Hinduism possesses an inherent "background universalism" and its doctrines exhibit "universal relevance." Furthermore, Hinduism is intrinsically religiously pluralistic. A prominent Rig Vedic hymn declares: "Ekam Sat Vipra Bahudha Vadanti," which translates to "Truth is One, though the sages know it variously." Likewise, in the Bhagavad Gītā (4:11), God, appearing as an incarnation, proclaims: "As people approach me, so I receive them. All paths lead to me." The Hindu tradition encounters no theological impediments in acknowledging varying degrees of truth within other faiths. Hinduism underscores the belief that all individuals ultimately worship the same divine entity, irrespective of their conscious awareness.

Although Hinduism demonstrates openness and tolerance toward other religions, it also encompasses significant internal diversity. The tradition recognizes six orthodox schools of philosophy and theology, alongside numerous unorthodox or "heterodox" traditions known as darshanas.

Hindu Universalism

Hindu universalism, alternatively termed Neo-Vedanta or neo-Hinduism, represents a contemporary interpretation of Hinduism that emerged in reaction to Western colonialism and orientalism. This ideology posits that all religions are inherently true and thus merit both toleration and respect.

This modern interpretation endeavors to portray Hinduism as a "homogenized ideal," with Advaita Vedanta serving as its foundational doctrine. For instance, it asserts:

... an imagined "integral unity" that likely constituted little more than a conceptualization of religious life confined to a cultural elite, possessing, empirically speaking, minimal practical reality "on the ground" throughout centuries of cultural evolution in the South Asian region.

Hinduism incorporates universalism by conceptualizing the entire world as a unified family that reveres a singular truth. Consequently, it embraces all belief systems and rejects the categorization of distinct religions, which would suggest a fragmented identity.

This modernized reinterpretation has permeated Indian culture, extending significantly beyond the Dashanami Sampradaya, the Advaita Vedanta Sampradaya established by Adi Shankara. Ram Mohan Roy, founder of the Brahmo Samaj, was an early proponent of Hindu Universalism. In the 20th century, Vivekananda and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan popularized Hindu Universalism in both India and the West. Mahatma Gandhi articulated a profound veneration for all other religions, stating:

Following extensive study and personal experience, I have concluded that [1] all religions possess truth; [2] all religions contain certain errors; [3] all religions are nearly as cherished by me as my own Hinduism, just as all human beings should be as cherished as one's own close relatives. My reverence for other faiths mirrors that for my own, thereby precluding any consideration of conversion.

Western orientalists significantly contributed to this popularization, considering Vedanta the "central theology of Hinduism." Oriental scholarship depicted Hinduism as a "single world religion," while disparaging the diversity of Hindu beliefs and practices as mere "distortions" of Vedanta's fundamental tenets.

Islam

Islam partially acknowledges the validity of Abrahamic religions, with the Quran identifying Jews, Christians, and "Sabi'un" (commonly interpreted as referring to the Mandaeans) as "people of the Book" (ahl al-kitab). Later Islamic theologians subsequently broadened this classification to encompass Zoroastrians, and eventually Hindus, due to the early Islamic empire's expansion, which brought numerous adherents of these faiths under its governance; nonetheless, the Qur'an explicitly designates solely Jews, Christians, and Sabians as People of the Book.^{, ,} The relationship between Islam and universalism has gained critical significance within the context of political Islam or Islamism, notably in discussions concerning Sayyid Qutb, a prominent figure in the Muslim Brotherhood movement and a pivotal contemporary Islamic philosopher.

Diverse perspectives on universalism exist within Islamic thought. The most encompassing doctrines assert that all People of the Book are afforded an opportunity for salvation. This is exemplified by Surah 2:62, which declares:

Indeed, the believers, Jews, Christians, and Sabians—whoever ˹truely˺ believes in Allah and the Last Day and does good will have their reward with their Lord. And there will be no fear for them, nor will they grieve.

Conversely, more restrictive interpretations diverge from this view. As an illustration, Surah 9:5 proclaims:

But once the Sacred Months have passed, kill the polytheists ˹who violated their treaties˺ wherever you find them, capture them, besiege them, and lie in wait for them on every way. But if they repent, perform prayers, and pay alms-tax, then set them free. Indeed, Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful.

The interpretation of all these passages is vigorously debated across diverse Islamic schools of thought and denominations, as is the principle of abrogation (naskh), a doctrine employed to ascertain the precedence of verses, based on reconstructed chronology, whereby later revelations supersede earlier ones. Furthermore, the ahadith significantly influence this discourse, with various schools of thought attributing differing levels of importance and authenticity to individual hadith; the four Sunni schools of jurisprudence generally endorse the Six Authentic Collections, alongside the Muwatta Imam Malik. The degree of acceptance or rejection of particular traditions can profoundly alter the interpretation of the Quran, ranging from Qur'anists, who repudiate the ahadith, to the ahl al-hadith, who venerate the entirety of the traditional collections.

Certain Islamic scholars conceptualize the world as bifurcated, comprising the House of Islam (Dar al-Islam), where individuals live under Sharia law, and the House of War (Dar al-Harb), where Sharia law is not observed. The latter, according to some traditionalist and conservative interpretations, necessitates proselytization through all available means, potentially including violence as a holy struggle (jihad) in God's path, either to convert its inhabitants to Islam or to establish Sharia governance over them (cf. dhimmi).

Judaism

Judaism posits that God selected the Jewish people, from among all humanity, to enter into a distinctive covenant. A core tenet is that the Torah entrusted the Jewish people with a specific mission: to serve as a "light unto the nations" and to embody the divine covenant, as delineated in the Torah, for other peoples. This perspective does not, however, preclude the belief in God's relationship with other peoples; instead, Judaism maintains that God established a covenant with all humanity through the Noachide laws, implying that both Jews and non-Jews share a connection with the Divine, and that the faith is universal in its accessibility to all humankind.

Contemporary Jewish thinkers, such as Emmanuel Levinas, champion a universalist perspective actualized through particularist practices. The Jewish Spiritual Leaders Institute, an online organization founded and directed by Steven Blane, who identifies as an "American Jewish Universalist Rabbi," promotes a more expansive form of Jewish Universalism, asserting that "God equally chose all nations to be lights unto the world, and we have much to learn and share with each other. We can only accomplish Tikkun Olam by our unconditional acceptance of each other's peaceful doctrines."

Manichaeism

Manichaeism, akin to Christian Gnosticism and Zurvanism, possessed arguably inherent universalist aspects. However, in other dimensions, it diverged significantly from universalistic tenets, instead upholding an eternal dualism.

Sikhism

Sikhism conceptualizes all global religions as tributaries converging into a singular oceanic entity. While the Sikh gurus historically diverged from practices such as fasting, idolatry, and pilgrimage, they consistently advocated for religious tolerance. The sacred text of Sikhism, the Guru Granth Sahib, incorporates not only the teachings of the Sikh gurus but also the compositions of various Hindu and Muslim saints, referred to as Bhagats.

The inaugural word of the Sikh scripture is "Ik," immediately succeeded by "Omkar." This phrase fundamentally signifies the existence of a singular deity, who is complete and encompasses the entire cosmos. The scripture further asserts that all creation and energy emanate from this primordial being. Consequently, the sacred texts repeatedly emphasize that all events unfold according to divine will and must therefore be embraced. Such occurrences possess an inherent purpose, even if their rationale transcends individual human comprehension.

While Sikhism does not posit that humanity is created in the image of God, it maintains that the divine essence permeates all aspects of creation. This perspective is encapsulated by Yogi Bhajan, recognized for introducing Sikhism to Western societies, who stated:

If you cannot perceive the divine in everything, you cannot perceive the divine at all.

Guru Nanak, the inaugural Sikh Guru, declared:

There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim.

Through this statement, Guru Nanak conveyed that, from a divine perspective, conventional "religion" holds no intrinsic reality. Distinct from numerous prominent global faiths, Sikhism does not employ missionaries; instead, it upholds the principle that individuals possess the autonomy to discover their unique path to spiritual liberation.

Unitarian Universalism

Unitarian Universalism (UU) represents a theologically liberal religious tradition defined by a "free and responsible search for truth and meaning." Adherents of Unitarian Universalism do not subscribe to a common creed; instead, their unity stems from a collective pursuit of spiritual development and the conviction that personal theology emerges from this quest, rather than from adherence to an authoritarian dictate. Unitarian Universalists derive inspiration from all major global religions and diverse theological perspectives, encompassing a broad spectrum of beliefs and practices.

Although Unitarian Universalism originated within Christianity, it no longer functions as a Christian denomination. By 2006, less than 20% of Unitarian Universalists identified as Christian. Modern Unitarian Universalism embraces a pluralistic stance on religious belief, allowing members to self-identify as humanist, agnostic, deist, atheist, pagan, Christian, monotheist, pantheist, polytheist, or to forgo any specific label.

The Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) was established in 1961 through the merger of the American Unitarian Association, founded in 1825, and the Universalist Church of America, founded in 1866. Headquartered in Boston, the UUA primarily supports congregations within the United States. The Canadian Unitarian Council achieved independent status in 2002.

Zoroastrianism

Certain Zoroastrian traditions, including Zurvanism, exhibit universalistic applicability across all ethnic groups, yet they do not inherently endorse universal salvation.

References

References

Sources

• Mura, Andrea (2014). "The Inclusive Dynamics of Islamic Universalism: From the Vantage Point of Sayyid Qutb's Critical Philosophy." Comparative Philosophy, 5 (1): 29–54. doi:10.31979/2151-6014(2014).050106. ISSN 2151-6014.Casara, E. (1984). Universalism in America.Ghazi, Abidullah Al-Ansari (2010). Raja Rammohun Roy: Encounter with Islam and Christianity and the Articulation of Hindu Self-Consciousness. Xlibris Corporation.King, Richard (1999). Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The Mystic East". Routledge.King, Richard (2002). Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and 'The Mystic East'. Routledge.Larson, Gerald James (2012). "The Issue of Not Being Different Enough: Some Reflections on Rajiv Malhotra's Being Different" (PDF). International Journal of Hindu Studies, 16 (3) (published December 2012): 311–322. doi:10.1007/s11407-012-9129-8. S2CID 144728948.Michaelson, Jay (2009). Everything Is God: The Radical Path of Nondual Judaism. Shambhala.Sinari, Ramakant (2000). "Advaita and Contemporary Indian Philosophy." In Chattopadhyana (ed.), History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Volume II, Part 2: Advaita Vedanta. Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations.Woo, B. Hoon (2014). "Karl Barth's Doctrine of the Atonement and Universalism." Korea Reformed Journal, 32: 243–291.Yelle, Robert A. (2012). "Comparative Religion as Cultural Combat: Occidentalism and Relativism in Rajiv Malhotra's Being Different." International Journal of Hindu Studies, 16 (3) (published December 2012): 335–348. doi:10.1007/s11407-012-9133-z. S2CID 144950049.Ankerl, Guy (2000). Global Communication Without Universal Civilization. Vol. 1: Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva, Switzerland: INU Press. ISBN 9782881550041.
  • Ankerl, Guy (2000). Global communication without universal civilization. Vol. 1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva, Switzerland: INU Press. ISBN 9782881550041.Palmquist, Stephen (2000). "Chapter Eight: Christianity as the Universal Religion." In Palmquist, Stephen (ed.), Kant's Critical Religion. Aldershot, Hants, England; Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate. ISBN 9780754613336.Scott, Joan W. (2005). "French Universalism in the Nineties." In Friedman, Marilyn (ed.), Women and Citizenship, Studies in Feminist Philosophy. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 35–51. ISBN 9780195175356.
    • Catholic Encyclopedia article on Universalists as a Protestant denomination
    • TentMaker website – Many free books and articles on Universalism