Vedanta

Vedanta (; Sanskrit: वेदान्त, IAST: Vedānta [ʋeːdɑ́ːntɐ]), also identified as Uttara Mīmāṃsā, constitutes one of the six orthodox (āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy and textual exegesis. The term Vedanta, signifying 'conclusion of the Vedas,' encompasses philosophical concepts derived from, or reinterpreting, the speculative and enumerative content of the Upanishads. These concepts variously emphasize devotion, knowledge, and liberation. Vedanta has evolved into numerous traditions, each offering distinct interpretations of a foundational textual corpus known as the Prasthānatrayī, or 'the three sources.' This corpus comprises the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita.

Vedanta (; Sanskrit: वेदान्त, IAST: Vedānta [ʋeːdɑ́ːntɐ]), also known as Uttara Mīmāṃsā, is one of the six orthodox (āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy and textual exegesis. The word Vedanta means 'conclusion of the Vedas,' and encompasses the ideas that emerged from, or aligned and reinterpreted, the speculations and enumerations contained in the Upanishads, focusing, with varying emphasis, on devotion, knowledge, and liberation. Vedanta developed into many traditions, all of which give their specific interpretations of a common group of texts called the Prasthānatrayī, translated as 'the three sources': the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita.

Across all Vedanta traditions, significant emphasis is placed on textual exegesis, featuring extensive discussions concerning ontology, soteriology, and epistemology, despite considerable divergence among the various schools. Viewed in isolation, these traditions might appear entirely disparate, owing to their distinct philosophical tenets and methodologies.

Key distinct traditions or movements within Vedanta include: Bhedabheda (difference and non-difference); Advaita (non-dualism); and several Vishnu-centric traditions such as Dvaitadvaita (dualistic non-dualism), Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), Tattvavada (Dvaita) (dualism), Suddhadvaita (pure non-dualism), and Achintya-Bheda-Abheda (inconceivable difference and non-difference). Contemporary developments in Vedanta encompass Neo-Vedanta and the philosophical tenets of the Swaminarayan Sampradaya.

The majority of prominent Vedanta schools, with the exceptions of Advaita Vedanta and Neo-Vedanta, are affiliated with Vaishnavism and prioritize devotion (bhakti) to God, typically conceptualized as Vishnu or an associated manifestation. In contrast, Advaita Vedanta foregrounds jñana (knowledge) and jñana Yoga, rather than theistic devotion, although Shankara himself might have been a Vaishnavite. Although Advaita's monistic philosophy has garnered significant Western interest, largely influenced by the 14th-century Advaitin Vidyaranya and contemporary figures such as Swami Vivekananda and Ramana Maharshi, the predominant focus of most Vedanta traditions remains Vaishnava theology.

Etymology and Nomenclature

The term Vedanta is derived from two words:

• Veda (वेद) — designates the four sacred Vedic texts.
• Anta (अन्त) — which signifies "end."

Literally, the term Vedanta translates to the end of the Vedas, originally denoting the Upanishads. Vedanta primarily addresses the jñānakāṇḍa, or the knowledge section of the Vedas, specifically identified as the Upanishads. Subsequently, the scope of Vedanta broadened to include diverse philosophical traditions that interpret and elucidate the Prasthānatrayī, each presenting its perspective on the relationship between humanity and the Divine or Absolute reality.

The Upanishads can be understood as the culmination of the Vedas in several respects:

1. They represent the final literary compositions of the Vedic period.
2. They represent the pinnacle of Vedic philosophy.
3. They were traditionally studied and discussed last, during the Sannyasa (ascetic) stage.

Vedanta stands as one of the six orthodox (āstika) traditions within Indian philosophy and textual exegesis. It is also designated as Uttara Mīmāṃsā, meaning the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry,' and is frequently juxtaposed with Pūrva Mīmāṃsā, which signifies the 'former enquiry' or 'primary enquiry.' While Pūrva Mīmāṃsā addresses the karmakāṇḍa, or the ritualistic sections (comprising the Samhita and Brahmanas) of the Vedas, Uttara Mīmāṃsā investigates profound questions concerning the relationship between humanity and the Divine or Absolute reality.

Vedanta Philosophy

Common Features

Despite their internal divergences, all traditions of Vedanta exhibit several shared characteristics:

• Vedanta involves the investigation into Brahman and Ātman.
• The various traditions provide their distinct exegetical interpretations of the Upaniṣads, the Bhagavadgītā, and the Brahma Sūtras (collectively referred to as the three canonical sources).
• Scripture (Sruti Śabda) serves as the primary authoritative source of knowledge (pramana).
• Brahman, identified with Īśvara (God), is posited as the immutable material and instrumental cause of the cosmos. An exception exists in Dvaita Vedanta, which regards Brahman solely as the efficient cause, not the material cause.
• The self, referred to as Ātman or Jīva, is considered the initiator of its own actions (karma) and the entity that experiences the outcomes of these actions.
• Core tenets include the belief in rebirth (samsara) and the aspiration for liberation from this cycle, known as moksha.
• Vedanta rejects the doctrines of Buddhism and Jainism, as well as the philosophical conclusions of other Vedic schools, including Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, and, to a certain degree, Purva Mimamsa.

Foundational Texts

The primary foundational scriptures within Vedanta are the Upanishads, the Bhagavadgītā, and the Brahma Sūtras. Every Vedantic tradition provides a distinct interpretation of these texts, which are collectively designated as the Prasthānatrayī, meaning "three sources."

1. The Upanishads, also known as Śruti prasthāna, are regarded as the Sruti, representing the "heard" and transmitted foundational texts of Vedanta.
2. The Brahma Sūtras, identified as Nyaya prasthana or Yukti prasthana, constitute the reason-based foundation of Vedanta.
3. The Bhagavadgītā, or Smriti prasthāna, is recognized as the Smriti (remembered tradition) foundation of Vedanta.

Noteworthy Vedantic scholars, including Shankara, Bhaskara, Ramanuja, Madhva, Nimbarka, and Vallabha, composed extensive commentaries on these three foundational texts. The Brahma Sūtras, attributed to Badarayana, provide a synthesis of the varied teachings within the Upanishads, employing a bhedabheda-based approach. Although other comparable syntheses may have existed historically, only the Brahma Sūtras persist today. Furthermore, the Bhagavadgītā, through its integration of Samkhya, Yoga, and Upanishadic philosophies, has profoundly shaped Vedantic intellectual discourse.

All adherents of Vedānta concur that scripture (śruti) serves as the exclusive epistemological authority (pramāṇa) for spiritual subjects, which transcend empirical perception and logical inference. Rāmānuja elucidates this position by stating:

A theoretical framework founded solely on human conceptualizations is susceptible to refutation by more astute arguments at a different juncture or location.... Consequently, concerning supernatural phenomena, Scripture stands as the sole epistemic authority, and reasoning should be employed exclusively to support Scripture’ [Śrī Bhāṣya 2.1.12].

Within particular sub-traditions of Vedanta, additional texts may hold comparable significance. For instance, in Advaita Vedanta, the writings of Adi Shankara are considered nominally central, despite other teachers having exerted equal or greater influence. For the theistic Vaishnava schools of Vedanta, the Bhāgavata Purāṇa holds exceptional importance. Indeed, the Bhāgavata Purāṇa is among the most extensively commented-upon works within Vedantic literature. Its centrality to Krishna-focused Vedanta schools is such that Vallabha incorporated the Bhāgavata Purāṇa as a fourth text into the Prasthānatrayī, the traditional triad of Vedantic scriptures.

Metaphysical Principles

Vedantic philosophies delineate three fundamental metaphysical categories and explore the interrelationships among them.

1. Brahman or Īśvara: representing the ultimate reality.
2. Ātman or Jivātman: denoting the individual soul or self.
3. Prakriti or Jagat: encompassing the empirical world, the perpetually changing physical universe, and all forms of body and matter.

Brahman / Īśvara: Conceptualizations of the Supreme Reality

In his formulation of Advaita, Shankara articulates two distinct conceptions of Brahman:

• Parā or Higher Brahman: This refers to the undifferentiated, absolute, infinite, transcendental, and supra-relational Brahman, which exists beyond the scope of thought and speech. It is identified as parā Brahman, nirviśeṣa Brahman, or nirguṇa Brahman, representing the metaphysical Absolute.
• Aparā or Lower Brahman: This denotes the qualified Brahman, also termed aparā Brahman or saguṇa Brahman. The saguṇa Brahman possesses attributes and is understood as the personal God within religious contexts.

In his development of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, Ramanuja repudiates the concept of Nirguṇa, asserting that an undifferentiated Absolute is inconceivable. Instead, he embraces a theistic interpretation of the Upanishads, identifying Brahman with Īśvara, the personal God who embodies all auspicious attributes and represents the singular reality. The divine entity in Vishishtadvaita is both approachable by devotees and simultaneously maintains its status as the Absolute, characterized by distinct attributes.

Madhva, in his exposition of Dvaita philosophy, asserts that Vishnu is the supreme God, thereby identifying the Brahman, or absolute reality, as described in the Upanishads, with a personal deity, a conceptualization previously established by Ramanuja. Nimbarka, through his Dvaitadvata philosophy, recognized Brahman as possessing both attributeless (nirguṇa) and attributed (saguṇa) qualities. Vallabha, in his Shuddhadvaita philosophy, not only accepts the threefold ontological essence of Brahman but also its manifestation as a personal God (Īśvara), as material existence, and as individual souls.

Conceptualizations of the Relationship between Brahman and Jīva/Ātman

The various schools of Vedanta present differing interpretations regarding the relationship between Ātman / Jīvātman and Brahman / Īśvara:

• Advaita Vedanta, a non-dualistic philosophy, asserts the absolute identity of Ātman with Brahman, positing no inherent distinction.
• Viśiṣṭādvaita, or qualified non-dualism, maintains that the Jīvātman is distinct from Īśvara, yet perpetually linked as an intrinsic mode of the divine. The singular nature of the Supreme Reality is conceptualized as an organic unity (vishistaikya). In this framework, Brahman/Īśvara, in its organic relationship with all Jīvātman and the material cosmos, constitutes the sole Ultimate Reality.
• Dvaita, a dualistic philosophical system, posits that the Jīvātman is fundamentally and perpetually distinct from Brahman / Īśvara.
• Shuddhadvaita, or pure non-dualism, asserts the identity of the Jīvātman and Brahman, with both, alongside the dynamic, empirically observable universe, being manifestations of Krishna.

Epistemology

Pramāṇa

Pramāṇa (Sanskrit: प्रमाण) translates literally to "proof" or "the means of valid knowledge." Within Indian philosophies, this term denotes epistemology, encompassing the investigation of reliable and legitimate methods through which individuals acquire precise and veridical understanding. The central concern of Pramāṇa lies in elucidating the processes of knowledge acquisition, the mechanisms of knowing and not knowing, and the scope of attainable knowledge concerning any entity or concept. Historical Indian texts from antiquity and the medieval period delineate six distinct pramanas as authoritative pathways to accurate knowledge and truth:

1. Pratyakṣa (direct perception)
2. Anumāṇa (logical inference)
3. Upamāṇa (comparative reasoning and analogy)
4. Arthāpatti (postulation, or derivation based on circumstantial evidence)
5. Anupalabdi (non-perception, serving as negative or cognitive proof)
6. Śabda (authoritative scriptural testimony or the verbal accounts of credible past or present experts).

Historically, the various schools of Vedanta have diverged on the epistemological validity of these six pramanas. For instance, Advaita Vedanta acknowledges all six, whereas Viśiṣṭādvaita and Dvaita recognize only three pramanas: perception, inference, and testimony.

Advaita philosophy regards Pratyakṣa (perception) as the foremost reliable source of knowledge, with Śabda, or scriptural evidence, being secondary, except in discussions concerning Brahman, where it serves as the exclusive evidentiary basis. Conversely, within Viśiṣṭādvaita and Dvaita, Śabda, the scriptural testimony, is esteemed as the most authoritative epistemological instrument.

Theory of Causality

All Vedantic schools adhere to the doctrine of Satkāryavāda, which posits that the effect inherently pre-exists within its cause. However, two distinct perspectives exist regarding the ontological status of the "effect," specifically the phenomenal world. Most Vedantic traditions, along with Samkhya, endorse Parinamavada, which asserts that the world represents a genuine transformation (parinama) of Brahman. As Nicholson (2010, p. 27) states, "the Brahma Sutras espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins." In contrast to Badarayana's stance, post-Shankara Advaita Vedantists advocate for Vivartavada, which contends that the effect, the world, constitutes merely an illusory (vivarta) transformation of its ultimate cause, Brahman.

Overview of Classical Vedanta Schools

The Upanishads engage in associative philosophical inquiry, delineating various doctrines and subsequently presenting arguments for or against them. These texts serve as foundational scriptures, which Vedanta interprets through polemical philosophical exegesis to uphold the perspective of its particular sampradaya. Over time, diverse interpretations of the Upanishads and their systematic compilation, the Brahma Sutras, fostered the emergence of distinct Vedanta schools.

Gavin Flood posits that while Advaita Vedanta is the most recognized school and often mistakenly regarded as the exclusive embodiment of Vedantic philosophy—despite Shankara's adherence to Shaivism—the authentic core of Vedanta resides within the Vaishnava tradition, functioning as a discourse within the broader Vaishnavism framework. Four Vaishnava sampradayas, founded on the doctrines of Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha, and Nimbarka, hold particular importance.

Scholars diverge on the precise number of classical Vedanta schools, though typically three to seven are recognized:

1. • Dvaitādvaita or Svabhavikabhedabheda (Vaishnava), established by Nimbarka and Srinivasacharya in the 7th century CE.
   • Aupādhika Bhedābheda, associated with Bhāskara (8th-9th century CE).
   • Suddhadvaita (Vaishnava), established by Vallabha (1479–1531 CE).
   • Achintya Bheda Abheda (Vaishnava), founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534 CE) and disseminated by Gaudiya Vaishnava.
2. Advaita (monistic), with prominent scholars including Gaudapada (circa 500 CE) and Adi Shankaracharya (8th century CE).
3. Vishishtadvaita (Vaishnava), featuring notable scholars such as Nathamuni, Yāmuna, and Ramanuja (1017–1137 CE).
4. Tattvavada (Dvaita) (Vaishnava), founded by Madhvacharya (1199–1278 CE), with prominent scholars including Jayatirtha (1345-1388 CE) and Vyasatirtha (1460–1539 CE).

Bhedabheda Vedanta (emphasizing both difference and non-difference).

Bhedābheda, signifying "difference and non-difference," functions more as a philosophical tradition than a singular school within Vedanta. Adherents of this tradition assert that the individual self (Jīvatman) is simultaneously distinct from and identical to Brahman. Key figures associated with this tradition include Bhartriprapancha; Nimbārka and Srinivasa (7th century), who established the Dvaitadvaita school; Bhāskara (8th–9th century); Yādavaprakāśa, Ramanuja's preceptor; Chaitanya (1486–1534), founder of the Achintya Bheda Abheda school; and Vijñānabhikṣu (16th century).

Dvaitādvaita

Nimbārka (7th century), occasionally associated with Bhāskara, along with Srinivasa, articulated the philosophy of Dvaitādvaita. This doctrine posits Brahman (God), souls (chit), and matter or the universe (achit) as three distinct, equally real, and co-eternal entities. Within this framework, Brahman functions as the controller (niyanta), the soul as the enjoyer (bhokta), and the material universe as the object of enjoyment (bhogya). Krishna is identified as Brahman, the ultimate, omniscient, omnipotent, and all-pervading Being. He serves as the efficient cause of the universe, orchestrating creation as the Lord of Karma and the inner guide of souls, thereby enabling individual souls to experience the repercussions of their karma. Furthermore, God is regarded as the material cause of the universe, as creation represents a manifestation of His inherent powers of soul (chit) and matter (achit); thus, creation is understood as a transformation (parinama) of divine potencies. Realization of God is achievable solely through persistent endeavor to assimilate His nature via meditation and devotion.

Achintya-Bheda-Abheda

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486 – 1533) was the foremost proponent of Achintya-Bheda-Abheda. The Sanskrit term achintya translates to 'inconceivable'. Achintya-Bheda-Abheda articulates the philosophical concept of "inconceivable difference in non-difference," pertaining to the non-dual reality of Brahman-Atman, which it identifies as (Krishna), the svayam bhagavan. This concept of "inconceivability" (acintyatva) serves to harmonize seemingly contradictory ideas found within Upanishadic doctrines. The school posits that Krishna embodies the Bhagavan for bhakti yogins and the Brahman for jnana yogins, possessing an incomprehensible divine potency. He is omnipresent, permeating all aspects of the universe (signifying non-difference), yet simultaneously transcends it in an inconceivable manner (representing difference). This philosophical school forms the bedrock of the Gaudiya Vaishnava religious tradition. Organizations such as ISKCON, also known as the Hare Krishnas, are also affiliated with this particular school of Vedanta philosophy.

Advaita Vedanta

Advaita Vedanta (IAST Advaita Vedānta; Sanskrit: अद्वैत वेदान्त), a philosophical system initially formulated by Gaudapada in the 7th century and Adi Shankara in the 9th century, and subsequently popularized by Vidyaranya in the 14th century and various 19th-20th century neo-Vedantins, advocates for non-dualism and monism. Within this framework, Brahman is considered the singular, immutable metaphysical reality, indistinguishable from the individual Atman. Conversely, the material world is perceived as an ever-changing, empirical manifestation of Maya. Realization of the absolute and infinite Atman-Brahman is achieved through a process of negating all relative, finite, empirical, and transient phenomena.

This school rejects duality, positing no distinct, limited individual souls (Atman / Jīvatman) nor a separate, unlimited cosmic soul. Instead, all souls and their manifestations throughout space and time are regarded as a singular, unified reality. Spiritual liberation within Advaita entails the complete understanding and experiential realization of this oneness, recognizing that one's immutable Atman (soul) is identical to the Atman present in all beings, and ultimately synonymous with Brahman.

Vishishtadvaita Vedanta

Vishishtadvaita, a philosophical system articulated by Ramanuja in the 11th–12th century, posits an inherent and untranscendable distinction between Jīvatman (individual human souls) and Brahman (identified as Vishnu). Despite this distinction, Ramanuja concurrently upheld a form of monism, asserting the fundamental unity of all souls and the capacity of individual souls to achieve identity with Brahman. As a qualified non-dualistic school of Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita, similar to Advaita, operates on the premise that all souls possess the potential to aspire to and attain a state of blissful liberation. Regarding the relationship between Brahman and the material world (Prakriti), Vishishtadvaita maintains that both are distinct absolutes, metaphysically true and real, neither being false nor illusory, and further affirms the reality of saguna Brahman, or Brahman with attributes. Ramanuja articulated that God, akin to humans, possesses both a soul and a body, with the material world representing the splendor of God's divine form. According to Ramanuja, the path to Brahman (identified as Vishnu) involves profound devotion to the divine and continuous contemplation of the beauty and love of the personal God (bhakti directed towards saguna Brahman).

Dvaita

Tattvavada, a philosophical system established by Madhvacharya in the 13th century, is founded upon the principle of realism. The designation Dvaita, signifying dualism, was subsequently attributed to Madhvacharya's philosophical framework. Within this system, Atman (the individual soul) and Brahman (identified as Vishnu) are conceptualized as entirely distinct entities. Brahman is regarded as the universe's creator, possessing perfect knowledge, omniscience, and omnipotence, and is fundamentally separate from both souls and matter. According to Dvaita Vedanta, individual souls must cultivate attraction, love, attachment, and complete devotional surrender to Vishnu to achieve salvation, as redemption is solely attained through His divine grace. Madhva posited that certain souls are eternally condemned, a perspective absent in Advaita and Vishishtadvaita Vedanta. Whereas Vishishtadvaita Vedanta maintained "qualitative monism and quantitative pluralism of souls," Madhva, in contrast, affirmed both "qualitative and quantitative pluralism of souls."

Shuddhādvaita

Shuddhadvaita, or pure non-dualism, articulated by Vallabhacharya (1479–1531 CE), posits that the cosmos is veritably real, subtly manifesting as Brahman, specifically in the form of Krishna. Vallabhacharya concurred with Advaita Vedanta's ontological framework, yet underscored that prakriti (the empirical world and body) is not distinct from Brahman, but rather an alternative manifestation thereof. Consequently, all existence—comprising soul and body, animate and inanimate entities, jīva and material substance—is identified with the eternal Krishna. Within this philosophical tradition, the path to Krishna is through bhakti (devotion). Vallabha rejected the renunciation inherent in monistic sannyasa as ineffectual, instead championing the path of devotion (bhakti) over that of knowledge (jnana). The objective of bhakti involves transcending ego, self-absorption, and deceit, to perpetually orient oneself towards the eternal Krishna in all phenomena, thereby securing liberation from samsara (the cycle of rebirth).

History

The history of Vedanta is conventionally delineated into two distinct epochs: the first preceding the compilation of the Brahma Sutras, and the second comprising the philosophical traditions that emerged subsequent to their authorship. Prior to the eleventh century, Vedanta remained a marginal philosophical current.

Before the Brahma Sutras (before the 5th century)

Scant information is available regarding Vedantic schools that predated the compilation of the Brahma Sutras (with initial composition around the 2nd century BCE and final redaction between 400–450 CE). Evidently, Badarayana, the author of the Brahma Sutras, was not the inaugural figure to systematize the doctrines of the Upanishads, given his citations of six preceding Vedantic preceptors—Ashmarathya, Badari, Audulomi, Kashakrtsna, Karsnajini, and Atreya. Additional early Vedanta teachers—Brahmadatta, Sundara, Pandaya, Tanka, and Dravidacharya—are referenced in subsequent secondary scholarly works. Although the original writings of these ancient masters are no longer extant, Sharma posits, based on later attributed quotations, that Ashmarathya and Audulomi adhered to Bhedabheda tenets, Kashakrtsna and Brahmadatta were Advaita proponents, and Tanka and Dravidacharya were either Advaita or Viśiṣṭādvaita scholars.

Brahma Sutras (completed in the 5th century)

Badarayana synthesized and expounded upon the doctrines of the Upanishads within the Brahma Sutras, also known as the Vedanta Sutra, which were potentially composed from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic perspective. Badarayana not only encapsulated the classical Upanishadic teachings but also systematically refuted competing philosophical traditions prevalent in ancient India, such as the Sāṃkhya system. These Brahma Sutras thus established the foundational framework for the subsequent evolution of Vedanta philosophy.

Although traditionally ascribed to Badarayana, the Brahma Sutras were probably compiled by various authors across several centuries. Estimates regarding the completion date of the Brahma Sutras diverge; Nakamura (1989) and Nicholson (2013 review) suggest their present form was likely finalized around 400–450 CE. Conversely, Isaeva proposes their completion and current form by 200 CE, while Nakamura asserts that "the great part of the Sutra must have been in existence much earlier than that" (800–500 BCE).

The text comprises four chapters, each subdivided into four quarters or sections. These aphorisms endeavor to synthesize the heterogeneous doctrines found within the Upanishads. Nevertheless, the enigmatic character of the Brahma Sutras' aphorisms necessitated extensive exegetical commentaries. Such commentaries subsequently led to the proliferation of numerous Vedanta schools, each offering its distinct interpretation and producing its own scholarly exposition.

Between the Brahma Sutras and Adi Shankara (5th–8th centuries)

Specific details concerning the period between the Brahma Sutras (5th century CE) and Adi Shankara (8th century CE) remain largely obscure. Only two literary works from this era persist: the Vākyapadīya, authored by Bhartṛhari (second half of the 5th century), and the Kārikā, composed by Gaudapada (early 6th or 7th century CE).

In his commentaries, Shankara enumerates 99 distinct predecessors of his philosophical lineage. Several significant early Vedanta philosophers are documented in Yamunācārya's Siddhitraya (c. 1050), Rāmānuja's Vedārthasamgraha (c. 1050–1157), and Śrīnivāsa Dāsa's Yatīndramatadīpikā. A minimum of fourteen thinkers are recognized to have flourished during the interval between the compilation of the Brahma Sutras and Shankara's era.

Bhartriprapancha, a prominent scholar of this era, posited that Brahman is singular and unified, yet encompasses diverse manifestations. Academics identify Bhartriprapancha as an early proponent of the Bhedabheda doctrine. Bhedābheda, meaning "difference and non-difference," represents a significant tradition within Vedanta rather than a distinct school. Adherents of this tradition assert that the individual self (Jīvatman) is simultaneously distinct from and identical to Brahman. Key figures associated with this philosophical lineage include Nimbārka (7th century), who established the Dvaitadvaita school; Bhāskara (8th–9th century); Yādavaprakāśa, a teacher of Ramanuja; Chaitanya (1486–1534), founder of the Achintya Bheda Abheda school; and Vijñānabhikṣu (16th century).

Gaudapada and Adi Shankara (Advaita Vedanta) (6th–9th centuries)

Advaita Vedanta, influenced by Buddhist thought, diverges from Bhedabheda philosophy by asserting the complete identity of Atman with the Absolute (Brahman).

Gaudapada

Gaudapada (circa 6th century CE) served as either the direct teacher or a more remote predecessor of Govindapada, who was Adi Shankara's instructor. Shankara is broadly recognized as a principal proponent of Advaita Vedanta. Gaudapada's seminal work, the Kārikā—also identified as the Māṇḍukya Kārikā or the Āgama Śāstra—represents the earliest extant comprehensive text on Advaita Vedanta.

Gaudapada's Kārikā drew upon the Mandukya, Brihadaranyaka, and Chhandogya Upanishads. Within the Kārikā, Advaita (non-dualism) is substantiated through rational principles (upapatti), distinct from scriptural revelation, presenting arguments devoid of religious, mystical, or scholastic components. Academic opinion remains divided regarding potential Buddhist influences on Gaudapada's philosophical framework. The significance of the Kārikā within Vedāntic literature is underscored by Shankara's decision to compose an independent commentary on it, alongside his works on the Brahma Sutras, the primary Upanishads, and the Bhagvad Gita.

Adi Shankara

Adi Shankara (circa 800–850 CE) expanded upon Gaudapada's contributions and earlier scholarly traditions, producing comprehensive commentaries on the Prasthanatrayi and the Kārikā. Shankara characterized the Mandukya Upanishad and the Kārikā as encapsulating "the epitome of the substance of the import of Vedanta." He was instrumental in integrating Gaudapada's work with the ancient Brahma Sutras, thereby establishing its locus classicus alongside the realistic interpretations found within the Brahma Sutras.

Although frequently venerated as the preeminent Indian philosopher, the actual historical impact of Adi Shankara's writings on Hindu intellectual discourse has been subject to scholarly scrutiny. The historical Shankara was likely a comparatively obscure Vaishnavite, and verifiable biographical details concerning his life are scarce. His enduring significance stems primarily from his "iconic representation of Hindu religion and culture," notwithstanding that the majority of Hindus do not subscribe to Advaita Vedanta.

Maṇḍana Miśra, a notable contemporary of Shankara, considered Mimamsa and Vedanta to constitute a unified philosophical system and championed their integration, termed Karma-jnana-samuchchaya-vada. Adi Shankara authored a significant treatise delineating the distinctions between the Vedanta and Mimamsa schools. For instance, Advaita Vedanta notably prioritizes renunciation over ritualistic practices.

Early Vaishnava Vedanta (7th–9th centuries)

Early Vaishnava Vedanta perpetuates the bhedabheda tradition, identifying Brahman with either Vishnu or Krishna.

Nimbārka and Dvaitādvaita

Nimbārka (7th century), occasionally associated with Bhāskara, articulated the philosophy of Dvaitādvaita, also known as Bhedābheda.

Bhāskara and Upadhika

Bhāskara, active during the 8th to 9th centuries, also propagated the Bhedabheda doctrine. His philosophical framework, which posits Upadhika, acknowledges the co-reality of both identity and difference. The ultimate causal principle, Brahman, is conceptualized as non-dual, formless pure being, and intelligence. This identical Brahman, when manifested through various events, constitutes the diverse phenomenal world. The Jīva is understood as Brahman constrained by mental faculties. Material existence and its inherent limitations are regarded as genuinely real, rather than mere illusions or products of ignorance. Bhaskara promoted bhakti, interpreting it as dhyana (meditation) focused on the transcendent Brahman. He explicitly rejected the concept of Maya and maintained that liberation could not be attained while embodied.

Vaishnavism Bhakti Vedanta: Eleventh to Sixteenth Centuries

Originating in the 7th century, the Bhakti movement within late medieval Hinduism experienced significant expansion following the 12th century. This movement was sustained by Puranic literature, including the Bhagavata Purana, various poetic compositions, and numerous academic commentaries (bhasyas) and collections (samhitas).

During this era, Vaishnavism Sampradayas (denominations or communities) proliferated, significantly shaped by the contributions of scholars like Ramanujacharya, Vedanta Desika, Madhvacharya, and Vallabhacharya. The propagation of Vaishnavism was further advanced by numerous Bhakti poets and teachers, including Manavala Mamunigal, Namdev, Ramananda, Surdas, Tulsidas, Eknath, Tyagaraja, and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. The founders of these Vaishnava sampradayas actively contested the prevailing Advaita Vedanta doctrines of Shankara. Notably, Ramanuja in the 12th century, Vedanta Desika and Madhva in the 13th, and Vallabhacharya in the 16th century, constructed their theological frameworks upon the devotional heritage of the Alvars (Shri Vaishnavas).

Vaishnavism fostered the emergence of several late Medieval movements across North and Eastern India, including those led by Ramananda in the 14th century, Sankaradeva in the 15th, and Vallabha and Chaitanya in the 16th century.

Ramanuja (Vishishtadvaita Vedanta): Eleventh to Twelfth Centuries

Rāmānuja (1017–1137 CE) emerged as the preeminent philosopher within the Viśiṣṭādvaita tradition. As the principal architect of Vishishtadvaita philosophy, he expounded the doctrine of qualified non-dualism. Yadava Prakasha, Ramanuja's preceptor, adhered to the Advaita monastic tradition. According to traditional accounts, Ramanuja diverged from Yadava and Advaita Vedanta, choosing instead to follow the teachings of Nathamuni and Yāmuna. Ramanuja successfully integrated the Prasthanatrayi with the theistic principles and philosophical insights of the Vaishnava Alvars poet-saints. He authored several seminal works, including commentaries (bhasyas) on the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita, all composed in Sanskrit.

Ramanuja articulated the epistemological and soteriological significance of bhakti, defining it as devotion to a personal God (specifically Vishnu in his system) and positing it as a path to spiritual emancipation. His theoretical framework posits both a plurality and a clear distinction between Atman (individual souls) and Brahman (the metaphysical ultimate reality). Concurrently, he affirmed the underlying unity of all souls and the inherent potential for the individual soul to achieve identity with Brahman. Vishishtadvaita serves as the foundational philosophical framework for Sri Vaishnavism.

Ramanuja played a pivotal role in incorporating Bhakti, or devotional worship, into the foundational tenets of Vedanta.

Madhva (Tattvavada or Dvaita Vedanta): Thirteenth to Fourteenth Centuries

Madhvacharya (1238–1317 CE) was the originator of Tattvavada, also known as Dvaita Vedanta. His Dvaita, or dualistic system, offered an interpretation diametrically opposed to that of Shankara. Diverging from Shankara's non-dualism and Ramanuja's qualified non-dualism, Madhva advocated for an unqualified dualism. Madhva authored commentaries on the principal Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Brahma Sutra.

Madhva commenced his Vedic studies at the age of seven, subsequently joining an Advaita Vedanta monastery in Dwarka, Gujarat. While studying under guru Achyutrapreksha, he frequently expressed dissent, eventually departing the Advaita monastery to establish Dvaita. Madhva, along with his disciples Jayatirtha and Vyasatirtha, engaged in critical analysis of all rival Hindu philosophies, Jainism, and Buddhism, reserving particularly stringent criticism for Advaita Vedanta and Adi Shankara.

Dvaita Vedanta is a theistic philosophy that identifies Brahman with Narayana, or more specifically Vishnu, analogous to Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta. However, its pluralism is more pronounced. Madhva's philosophy profoundly emphasized distinctions between the soul and Brahman, positing five categories of difference: (1) between material things; (2) between material things and souls; (3) between material things and God; (4) between souls; and (5) between souls and God. Furthermore, he asserted varying degrees in the acquisition of knowledge. Uniquely among Indian philosophical systems, Dvaita Vedanta also maintained that even liberated souls experience differing levels of bliss.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and Achintya Bheda Abheda (16th Century)

The Achintya Bheda Abheda (Vaishnava) school, founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534 CE), was subsequently disseminated by the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition. Notably, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu initiated the practice of congregational chanting of Krishna's holy names in the early 16th century, following his renunciation (sannyasa).

Modern Era (19th Century – Present)

Swaminarayan and the Akshar-Purushottam Darshan (19th Century)

The Swaminarayan Darshana, a philosophical system rooted in Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita, was established in 1801 by Swaminarayan (1781–1830 CE) and is currently most prominently disseminated by BAPS. This darshana posits Parabrahman (identified as Purushottam or Narayana) and Aksharbrahman as two eternally distinct realities. Adherents seek moksha (liberation) through the process of becoming aksharrup (or brahmarup), which entails acquiring attributes akin to Akshar (or Aksharbrahman) and engaging in the worship of Purushottam (or Parabrahman, the supreme divine entity).

The Akshar-Purushottam teachings gained recognition as a distinct Vedantic school in 2017 by the Shri Kashi Vidvat Parishad and in 2018 by participants of the 17th World Sanskrit Conference, largely attributable to the commentarial contributions of Bhadreshdas Swami. Swami Paramtattvadas characterizes these teachings as "a distinct school of thought within the larger expanse of classical Vedanta," thereby positioning Akshar-Purushottam as a seventh school of Vedanta.

Neo-Vedanta (19th Century)

Neo-Vedanta, also referred to as "Hindu modernism," "neo-Hinduism," and "neo-Advaita," designates novel interpretations of Hinduism that emerged in the 19th century, ostensibly as a response to British colonial governance. King (2002, pp. 129–135) suggests that these concepts provided Hindu nationalists with a framework to construct a unifying nationalist ideology against colonial oppression. Conversely, Western orientalists, in their pursuit of Hinduism's "essence," endeavored to define it through a singular Vedantic interpretation, presenting it as a monolithic religious practice. This perspective was historically inaccurate, given that both Hinduism and Vedanta had consistently embraced a multiplicity of traditions. King (1999, pp. 133–136) argues that Hindu reformers utilized the neo-Vedantic principle of "overarching tolerance and acceptance," alongside Universalism and Perennialism, to counter the polemical dogmatism of Judaeo-Christian-Islamic missionaries directed at Hindus.

Neo-Vedantins posited that the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy represented valid and complementary perspectives on a singular truth. Halbfass (2007, p. 307) interprets these formulations as integrating Western concepts into traditional systems, particularly Advaita Vedanta. King (1999, p. 135) identifies Neo-Vedanta as the modern manifestation of Advaita Vedanta, wherein neo-Vedantists incorporated Buddhist philosophies into the Vedantic tradition. They subsequently contended that all world religions share the same "non-dualistic position as the philosophia perennis," thereby disregarding inherent differences both within and beyond Hinduism. Gier (2000, p. 140) defines Neo-Vedanta as a form of Advaita Vedanta that embraces universal realism, stating:

Prominent figures such as

Ramakrishna, Vivekananda, and Aurobindo have been categorized as neo-Vedantists (with Aurobindo terming his perspective 'realistic Advaita'), representing a Vedantic viewpoint that repudiates the Advaitin notion of the world as illusory. Aurobindo articulated this shift, stating that philosophers must transition from 'universal illusionism' to 'universal realism,' which, in a rigorous philosophical context, implies accepting the world as entirely real.

Vivekananda significantly contributed to the widespread adoption of this Universalist and Perennialist interpretation of Advaita Vedanta, playing a pivotal role in the resurgence of Hinduism. Furthermore, he was instrumental in disseminating Advaita Vedanta to Western audiences through the Vedanta Society, which serves as the international branch of the Ramakrishna Order.

Critiques of the Neo-Vedanta Designation

Nicholson (2010, p. 2) observes that integrative efforts, subsequently termed Neo-Vedanta, were discernible from the 12th to the 16th century—

... certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems" (saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu philosophy.

Matilal critiques Neo-Hinduism, characterizing it as an anomaly conceived by Western Indologists influenced by Western thought, and attributes its emergence to a flawed Western understanding of Hinduism in contemporary India. In a sharp critique of this intellectual framework, Matilal (2002, pp. 403–404) asserts:

The so-called 'traditional' outlook is in fact a construction. Indian history shows that the tradition itself was self-conscious and critical of itself, sometimes overtly and sometimes covertly. It was never free from internal tensions due to the inequalities that persisted in a hierarchical society, nor was it without confrontation and challenge throughout its history. Hence Gandhi, Vivekananda and Tagore were not simply 'transplants from Western culture, products arising solely from confrontation with the west. ...It is rather odd that, although the early Indologists' romantic dream of discovering a pure (and probably primitive, according to some) form of Hinduism (or Buddhism as the case may be) now stands discredited in many quarters; concepts like neo-Hinduism are still bandied about as substantial ideas or faultless explanation tools by the Western 'analytic' historians as well as the West-inspired historians of India.

Impact and Significance

Nakamura (2004, p. 3) posits that the Vedanta school has exerted a historically profound and central influence on Hinduism:

The prevalence of Vedanta thought is found not only in philosophical writings but also in various forms of (Hindu) literature, such as the epics, lyric poetry, drama and so forth. ... the Hindu religious sects, the common faith of the Indian populace, looked to Vedanta philosophy for the theoretical foundations for their theology. The influence of Vedanta is prominent in the sacred literatures of Hinduism, such as the various Puranas, Samhitas, Agamas and Tantras ...

Frithjof Schuon encapsulates Vedanta's influence on Hinduism by stating:

The Vedanta contained in the Upanishads, then formulated in the Brahma Sutra, and finally commented and explained by Shankara, is an invaluable key for discovering the deepest meaning of all the religious doctrines and for realizing that the Sanatana Dharma secretly penetrates all the forms of traditional spirituality.

Gavin Flood asserts:

... the most influential school of theology in India has been Vedanta, exerting enormous influence on all religious traditions and becoming the central ideology of the Hindu renaissance in the nineteenth century. It has become the philosophical paradigm of Hinduism "par excellence".

Hindu Denominations and Lineages

Vedanta, by integrating concepts from other orthodox (āstika) schools, emerged as the preeminent philosophical system within Hinduism. Vedantic traditions subsequently fostered the evolution of numerous distinct Hindu lineages. For instance, Sri Vaishnavism, prevalent in southern and southeastern India, is rooted in Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta. Ramananda initiated the Vaishnav Bhakti Movement across northern, eastern, central, and western India, a movement that derives its philosophical and theological foundations from Vishishtadvaita. Furthermore, a significant number of devotional Vaishnavism traditions in eastern India, northern India (especially the Braj region), and parts of western and central India are grounded in various sub-schools of Bhedabheda Vedanta. Advaita Vedanta notably influenced Krishna Vaishnavism in the northeastern state of Assam, while the Madhva school of Vaishnavism, found in coastal Karnataka, is predicated on Dvaita Vedanta.

The classical literature of Shaivism, known as the Āgamas, exhibits connections and foundational principles aligned with Vedanta, despite their distinct origins. Among the 92 Āgamas, ten are categorized as dvaita (dualistic) texts, eighteen as bhedabheda (difference-in-non-difference), and sixty-four as advaita (non-dualistic) texts. The Bhairava Shastras espouse monism, whereas the Shiva Shastras adhere to dualism. Isaeva (1995, pp. 134–135) identifies a clear and inherent connection between Gaudapada's Advaita Vedanta and Kashmir Shaivism. Tirumular, a Tamil scholar of Shaiva Siddhanta and credited with synthesizing "Vedanta–Siddhanta" (a fusion of Advaita Vedanta and Shaiva Siddhanta), asserted that "achieving union with Shiva constitutes the ultimate objective of both Vedanta and Siddhanta; all other aspirations are subordinate and ultimately futile."

Shaktism, which encompasses traditions where a goddess is regarded as synonymous with Brahman, similarly developed through a syncretic integration of the monistic principles of Advaita Vedanta and the dualistic tenets of the Samkhya–Yoga school of Hindu philosophy. This synthesis is occasionally termed Shaktadavaitavada, signifying "the path of nondualistic Shakti."

Influence on Western Thinkers

The late 18th century marked the beginning of an intellectual exchange between the Western world and Asia, largely spurred by the colonization of Asian territories by Western powers. This interaction also impacted Western religious thought. The initial translation of the Upanishads, released in two volumes in 1801 and 1802, profoundly affected Arthur Schopenhauer, who referred to them as the solace of his existence. Schopenhauer explicitly identified parallels between his philosophical system, articulated in The World as Will and Representation, and the Vedanta philosophy as presented in Sir William Jones's writings. Subsequent early translations also emerged in various other European languages. Lucian Blaga, drawing inspiration from Śaṅkara's notions of Brahman (God) and māyā (illusion), frequently incorporated the concepts of marele anonim (the Great Anonymous) and cenzura transcendentă (the transcendental censorship) into his philosophical framework.

Paul Deussen, inspired by Schopenhauer, significantly advanced the standing of Indian philosophy, especially Advaita Vedanta, within German idealism and the field of Indology. His scholarly contributions, encompassing works on the history of philosophy and translations of the Upanishads, presented Vedanta as the fundamental essence of Indian intellectual tradition, thereby influencing 20th-century academic discourse. Deussen maintained that Advaita represented the primordial truth, while also recognizing other interpretations such as Visistadvaita and Dvaita. He posited a six-stage regression model that charted philosophy's perceived decline from monistic idealism towards realism and theism, drawing parallels between Indian and Greek philosophical trajectories.

Similarities with Spinoza's Philosophy

The German Sanskritist Theodore Goldstücker was among the first scholars to identify resemblances between the religious doctrines of Vedanta and those of the Dutch Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza, asserting that Spinoza's philosophy was:

... such an accurate representation of Vedantic ideas that one might have presumed its founder borrowed the fundamental principles of his system from the Hindus, were it not for his biography confirming his complete unfamiliarity with their doctrines [...] by comparing the fundamental ideas of both, we would have no difficulty demonstrating that, had Spinoza been a Hindu, his system would, in all probability, signify a final stage of Vedanta philosophy.

Max Müller observed the notable resemblances between Vedanta and Spinoza's philosophical system, stating:

The Brahman, as conceptualized in the Upanishads and elucidated by Sankara, is unequivocally identical to Spinoza's 'Substantia'.

Helena Blavatsky, a co-founder of the Theosophical Society, similarly drew comparisons between Spinoza's religious philosophy and Vedanta, noting in an incomplete essay:

Regarding Spinoza's Deity – natura naturans – understood solely through its attributes; and the same Deity – as natura naturata or as comprehended through the infinite sequence of modifications or correlations, which are the direct consequences flowing from the properties of these attributes, it is, purely and simply, the Vedantic Deity.

Mahajanas

• Mahajanas
• Badarayana
• Monistic idealism
• List of teachers of Vedanta
• Śāstra pramāṇam in Hinduism

Notes

References

Sources

Printed sources

Web sources

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