Op art, an abbreviation for optical art, denotes a visual art style characterized by the utilization of distorted or manipulated geometric patterns, frequently employed to generate optical illusions. Originating in the early 20th century, this movement gained significant popularity from the 1960s onward, with the term "Op art" itself being coined in 1964.
Op artworks are predominantly abstract, with several prominent examples executed in monochromatic palettes. These pieces characteristically evoke in the observer perceptions of motion, concealed imagery, pulsating and oscillating patterns, or volumetric expansion and distortion. Conversely, the significantly older trompe-l'œil technique consistently depicts figurative subjects, rendered with an illusion of three-dimensional depth.
Historical Context
Illusionism, which centers on the perception of expansive space within a two-dimensional plane, has been present since the nascent stages of art history. Nevertheless, the precursors to Op art, particularly concerning graphic effects and an interest in unusual optical phenomena, are discernible in movements such as Neo-Impressionism, Cubism, Futurism, Constructivism, and Dada. The Divisionists, a collective of Neo-Impressionist artists, endeavored to augment the perceived luminosity of their canvases by employing optical principles and illusions. László Moholy-Nagy pioneered photographic Op art and instructed on the topic at the Bauhaus; one notable pedagogical exercise involved students creating perforations in cards and subsequently photographing them.
The publication Time magazine formally introduced the term op art in 1964, specifically in reaction to Julian Stanczak's exhibition, Optical Paintings at the Martha Jackson Gallery. This designation referred to a genre of abstract art (specifically non-objective art) that incorporates optical illusions. However, artistic creations now categorized as "Op art" had been developed for several years prior to Time's 1964 publication. For example, Victor Vasarely's 1938 painting, Zebras, consists exclusively of curvilinear black and white stripes that lack defined contour lines. As a result, these stripes generate the visual effect of simultaneously merging with and projecting from the surrounding background. Furthermore, John McHale's initial black and white "dazzle" panels, showcased at the This Is Tomorrow exhibition in 1956, and his Pandora series, presented at the Institute of Contemporary Arts in 1962, exemplify early proto-Op art characteristics. Martin Gardner explored Op art and its mathematical underpinnings in his "Mathematical Games" column, published in Scientific American in July 1965. In Italy, Franco Grignani, initially educated as an architect, emerged as a prominent figure in graphic design, with Op art and kinetic art forming the core of his practice. His Woolmark logo, introduced in Britain in 1964, is arguably his most renowned design.
Op art likely exhibits a closer derivation from the constructivist methodologies prevalent at the Bauhaus. This German institution, established by Walter Gropius, emphasized the intrinsic connection between form and function, operating within an analytical and rational framework. Students were instructed to prioritize the holistic design or complete compositional structure to achieve cohesive artistic outputs. Additionally, Op art originates from trompe-l'œil and anamorphosis. Connections to psychological inquiry have also been established, notably with Gestalt theory and psychophysiology. Following the forced closure of the Bauhaus in 1933, numerous instructors emigrated to the United States. Subsequently, the movement became established in Chicago and later at Black Mountain College in Asheville, North Carolina, where Anni and Josef Albers eventually held teaching positions.
Frank Popper asserts that "Op artists thus managed to exploit various phenomena," further detailing "the after-image and consecutive movement; line interference; the effect of dazzle; ambiguous figures and reversible perspective; successive color contrasts and chromatic vibration; and in three-dimensional works different viewpoints and the superimposition of elements in space."
In 1955, Victor Vasarely and Pontus Hulten introduced novel kinetic expressions, grounded in optical and luminous phenomena alongside painterly illusionism, through their "Yellow manifesto" for the Mouvements exhibition at the Denise René gallery in Paris. The contemporary manifestation of kinetic art emerged initially at the Museum für Gestaltung in Zürich in 1960, subsequently undergoing significant evolution throughout the 1960s. Across most European nations, this artistic category typically encompasses optical art, which primarily employs visual illusions such as op art, and movement-based art, exemplified by artists like Yacov Agam, Carlos Cruz-Diez, Jesús Rafael Soto, Gregorio Vardanega, and Nicolas Schöffer. Between 1961 and 1968, the Groupe de Recherche d'Art Visuel (GRAV), established by François Morellet, Julio Le Parc, Francisco Sobrino, Horacio Garcia Rossi, Yvaral, Joël Stein, and Vera Molnár, functioned as a collaborative assembly of opto-kinetic artists. As articulated in their 1963 manifesto, GRAV advocated for direct public engagement, aiming to influence viewer behavior, particularly through interactive labyrinthine installations.
Several European artists associated with the Nouvelle tendance group (1961–1965), including Almir Mavignier and Gerhard von Graevenitz, also explored op art, primarily through their serigraphic works. Their artistic investigations focused on optical illusions. The designation "op" proved contentious for many artists categorized under it, notably Albers and Stanczak, who had previously proposed "perceptual art" as a more fitting descriptor during the term's inception. Commencing in 1964, Arnold Schmidt (Arnold Alfred Schmidt) presented multiple solo exhibitions at the Terrain Gallery in New York, showcasing his expansive, black-and-white shaped optical paintings.
The Responsive Eye
From February 23 to April 25, 1965, the Museum of Modern Art in New York City hosted The Responsive Eye, an exhibition curated by William C. Seitz, which subsequently traveled to St. Louis, Seattle, Pasadena, and Baltimore. The diverse collection of artworks featured minimalist pieces by Frank Stella and Ellsworth Kelly, the fluid sculptural forms of Alexander Liberman, collaborative projects by the Anonima group, and contributions from prominent artists such as Wojciech Fangor, Victor Vasarely, Julian Stanczak, Richard Anuszkiewicz, Wen-Ying Tsai, Bridget Riley, and Getulio Alviani. This exhibition specifically highlighted the perceptual dimensions of art, arising from both the illusion of motion and the interplay of chromatic relationships.
While the exhibition garnered significant public acclaim, attracting over 180,000 visitors, it received a less favorable reception from art critics. Critics largely dismissed op art as mere trompe-l'œil, characterizing it as visual trickery. Nevertheless, public acceptance of the style grew, leading to the widespread application of op art imagery in various commercial applications. Notably, an early documentary film by Brian de Palma chronicled this exhibition.
Operational Methodology
Dichotomy of Black and White: Figure-Ground Dynamics
Op art constitutes a perceptual phenomenon intrinsically linked to the mechanisms of human vision. This dynamic visual art form originates from a dissonant figure-ground relationship, establishing a taut and paradoxical juxtaposition between the foreground and background planes. Artists primarily employ two methods to produce op art. The most recognized approach involves generating effects through the manipulation of patterns and lines. These artworks frequently utilize black and white, or shades of gray (grisaille), as exemplified by Bridget Riley's early works like Current (1964), which featured on the cover of The Responsive Eye catalog. In such pieces, closely spaced black and white wavy lines on the canvas surface engender a volatile figure-ground interaction. Getulio Alviani, conversely, utilized treated aluminum surfaces to generate light patterns that transform with the viewer's movement, creating vibrating textured surfaces. Another visual effect observed is the generation of after-images of specific colors, a consequence of how the retina processes and interprets light. As elucidated by Goethe in his seminal work Theory of Colours, color emerges at the interface of light and dark, given that lightness and darkness are fundamental properties in chromatic generation.
Chromatic Elements
Bridget Riley initiated the production of color-based Op Art in 1965; however, other artists, including Julian Stanczak and Richard Anuszkiewicz, consistently prioritized color as the central element of their artistic endeavors. Josef Albers instructed these two prominent exponents of the "Color Function" school at Yale during the 1950s. Colorist works frequently address the same principles of figure-ground dynamics, yet they incorporate the additional dimension of contrasting hues, which generate distinct visual effects. For example, Anuszkiewicz's "temple" paintings utilize the juxtaposition of two highly contrasting colors to evoke an illusion of depth within a three-dimensional space, creating the perception that the architectural form projects into the viewer's immediate environment.
Exhibitions
- L'Œil moteur: Art optique et cinétique 1960–1975, Musée d'art moderne et contemporain, Strasbourg, France, May 13–September 25, 2005.
- Op Art, Schirn Kunsthalle, Frankfurt, Germany, February 17–May 20, 2007.
- The Optical Edge, The Pratt Institute of Art, New York, March 8–April 14, 2007.
- Optic Nerve: Perceptual Art of the 1960s, Columbus Museum of Art, Columbus, Ohio, February 16–June 17, 2007.
- CLE OP: Cleveland Op Art Pioneers, Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio, April 9, 2011 – February 26, 2012.
- Bridget Riley has been featured in numerous international exhibitions, including those at the Dia Center, New York (2000); Tate Britain, London (2003); and the Museum of Contemporary Art, Sydney (2004).
References
References
Bibliography
- Popper, Frank. Origins and Development of Kinetic Art. New York Graphic Society/Studio Vista, 1968.
- Popper, Frank. From Technological to Virtual Art. Leonardo Books, MIT Press, 2007.
- Seitz, William C. (1965). The Responsive Eye (PDF). New York: Museum of Modern Art. Exhibition catalog.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
- Opartica - online op art making tool