Manichaeism

Manichaeism (; Persian: آئین مانی, romanized: Āʾīn-i Mānī; Chinese: 摩尼教; pinyin: Móníjiào) emerged as a prominent global religion during the third century CE, established by the Parthian Iranian prophet Mani (216–274) within the Sasanian Empire. Its doctrine posited an intricate dualistic cosmology, delineating a perpetual conflict between a benevolent spiritual realm of light and a malevolent material domain of darkness. This cosmology asserted that, throughout human history, light progressively dissociates from the material world and reintegrates into the divine sphere.

Manichaeism (; in Persian: آئین مانی, romanized: Āʾīn-i Mānī; Chinese: 摩尼教; pinyin: Móníjiào) was a major world religion founded in the third century CE by the Parthian Iranian prophet Mani (216–274) in the Sasanian Empire. It taught an elaborate dualistic cosmology describing the struggle between a good spiritual world of light, and an evil material world of darkness. Through an ongoing process in human history, light is gradually removed from the world of matter and returned to the world of the divine.

Mani formulated his teachings with the aim of synthesizing, superseding, and transcending the "partial truths" found in numerous antecedent belief systems and religions. These included Platonism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Marcionism, Hellenistic and Rabbinic Judaism, Gnosticism, Ancient Greek religion, Babylonian religion, other ancient Mesopotamian religions, and the Greco-Roman mysteries. Certain Manichaean traditions regarded Mani as the ultimate prophet, following figures such as Zoroaster, the Buddha, and Jesus. The Manichaean scriptural canon comprised seven texts ascribed to Mani, originally composed in Syriac. Manichaean sacramental practices encompassed prayer, almsgiving, and fasting. The communal existence revolved around confession and the recitation of hymns.

Characterized by its doctrine of universal salvation and a strong emphasis on active proselytism, Manichaeism rapidly gained traction, disseminating across Aramaic-speaking territories, the Mediterranean basin, and the Middle East. Flourishing from the third to the seventh centuries CE, it achieved global prominence, becoming one of the most geographically expansive religions during its zenith. Manichaean ecclesiastical structures and sacred texts were documented from China in the East to Roman Iberia in the West. Prior to the advent of Islam, Manichaeism briefly served as the primary ideological competitor to nascent Christianity. Subjected to escalating persecution by both the Roman state and the emerging Christian church, it largely vanished from Roman territories by the close of the sixth century.

Manichaeism persisted and expanded eastward. Its historical presence in West Asia endured until its suppression by later Abbasid Caliphate rulers in the 10th century. Through trade routes and missionary endeavors, Manichaeism reached Tang China in the seventh century, subsequently evolving into a distinct localized form. It served as the official religion of the Uyghur Khaganate until the Khaganate's dissolution in 830. Although subsequently proscribed by the Tang court, Manichaeism experienced a revival under the Mongol Yuan dynasty during the 13th and 14th centuries. Persistent persecution by Chinese emperors ultimately resulted in Manichaeism's assimilation into Buddhism and Taoism prior to the conclusion of the 14th century.

Several historical Manichaean sites remain extant in China, notably the Cao'an temple in Jinjiang, Fujian. Furthermore, the religion may have exerted influence on subsequent movements during the European Middle Ages, such as Paulicianism, Bogomilism, and Catharism. Although the majority of original Manichaean writings are no longer extant, a considerable number of translations and textual fragments have been preserved.

Terminology

The orthography Manichaeism represents a hypercorrection of Manichaism, which originates from the Koine Greek term Μανιχαϊσμός(Manikhaïsmós) through its Latin form Manichaismus. This Greek word is derived from Μανιχαῖος (Manikhaîos; 'Manichaeus'), a designation for Mani found in Greek historical records.

In English, individuals who adhere to Manichaeism are referred to as a Manichaean, Manichean, or Manichee.

History

Life of Mani

Mani, an Iranian, was born in 216 CE, either within or in proximity to Ctesiphon (present-day al-Mada'in, Iraq), a city then situated within the Parthian Empire. The Cologne Mani-Codex indicates that Mani's parents belonged to the Elcesaites, a Jewish Christian Gnostic sect.

Mani authored seven works, with six of these composed in the Late Aramaic Syriac language. The seventh work, entitled the Shabuhragan, was penned by Mani in Middle Persian and personally presented to the Sasanian emperor Shapur I. While no definitive evidence suggests Shapur I's adherence to Manichaeism, he permitted its dissemination and abstained from persecuting its followers within the confines of his empire.

Michel Tardieu posits that Mani invented the distinct Syriac script, the Manichaean alphabet, which was employed across all Manichaean texts produced within the Sasanian Empire, encompassing both Syriac and Middle Persian compositions, and predominantly in works from the Uyghur Khaganate. During that era, Eastern Middle Aramaic served as the principal language of Babylonia, functioning as both the administrative and cultural lingua franca of the Empire. This language comprised three primary dialects: Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, associated with the Babylonian Talmud; Mandaic, central to Mandaeism; and Syriac, utilized by Mani and Syriac Christians.

As Manichaeism expanded, established faiths such as Zoroastrianism maintained their prominence, concurrently with early Christianity's increasing social and political influence. Notwithstanding its comparatively smaller adherents, Manichaeism garnered patronage from several influential political figures. Supported by the Sasanian Empire, Mani initiated missionary endeavors. Nevertheless, his inability to secure the favor of subsequent Persian royalty and the opposition from the Zoroastrian clergy led to Mani's incarceration and eventual death while awaiting execution under Emperor Bahram I. His demise is estimated to have occurred approximately between 276 and 277 CE.

Influences

Mani posited that the doctrines of the Buddha, Zoroaster, and Jesus of Nazareth were incomplete, asserting that his own revelations were intended for universal dissemination and constituted a novel "religion of light". Manichaean texts suggest Mani experienced revelations at ages 12 and 24, during which time he developed a dissatisfaction with the Elcesaites, the Gnostic Jewish Christian sect into which he was born. Iain Gardner, in The Founder of Manichaeism, contends that Jainism likely influenced Mani, attributing this to the rigorous asceticism and distinct tenets of Mahāvīra's community, thereby suggesting a stronger plausibility than influence from Buddhist traditions. In 1996, Richard C. C. Fynes proposed that diverse Jain influences, notably concepts concerning the existence of plant souls, migrated from Western Kshatrapa territories to Mesopotamia before being assimilated into Manichaean doctrines. Mani's choice of colorful attire, unconventional for his era, evoked comparisons among some Romans to a stereotypical Persian magus or warlord, thereby provoking animosity within the Greco-Roman sphere.

Mani commenced his preaching career at a young age, potentially drawing influence from contemporaneous Babylonian-Aramaic movements such as Mandaeism; Aramaic renditions of non-canonical Jewish apocalyptic texts akin to those discovered at Qumran (e.g., the Book of Enoch); and the Syriac dualist Gnostic author Bardaisan, who preceded Mani by a generation. The subsequent discovery of the Cologne Mani-Codex further elucidated the impact of his background with the Elcesaites on his literary output.

Mani's doctrine asserted that the soul of a righteous person ascends to Paradise following death. Conversely, a soul that succumbs to worldly desires—including fornication, procreation, material accumulation, agricultural cultivation, harvesting, meat consumption, and wine drinking—incurs condemnation and is fated for transmigration through a succession of diverse corporeal forms.

Biographical accounts preserved by ibn al-Nadim and the Persian polymath al-Biruni indicate that Mani, during his youth, experienced a revelation from a spiritual entity. He subsequently referred to this entity by various appellations, including his "Twin" (Imperial Aramaic: תְּאוֹמָא, romanized: Tāʾūmā; pronounced [tɑʔwmɑ]), Syzygos (Koine Greek: σύζυγος, lit. 'together-yoked') as documented in the Cologne Mani-Codex, "Double," "Protective Angel," or "Divine Self". This spirit imparted wisdom to him, which he subsequently formalized into a religious system. His "twin" is credited with facilitating Mani's self-realization. Mani asserted his identity as the Paraclete of the Truth, a figure promised by Jesus in John 14:16 of the New Testament.

Samuel N. C. Lieu, a prominent scholar of Manichaeism, observes that the theological functions of Jesus within Manichaean doctrine were notably intricate:

Augustine of Hippo additionally recorded Mani's self-proclamation as an "apostle of Jesus Christ". Manichaean tradition reportedly posited Mani as the reincarnation of various religious luminaries from preceding epochs, encompassing the Buddha, Zoroaster, and Jesus.

Augustine of Hippo also noted that Mani declared himself to be an "apostle of Jesus Christ". Manichaean tradition is noted to have claimed that Mani was the reincarnation of religious figures from previous eras, including the Buddha, Zoroaster, and Jesus himself.

Much of the current understanding of Manichaeism derives from accounts by 10th- and 11th-century Muslim historians, such as al-Biruni and ibn al-Nadim, whose work al-Fihrist notably attributes to Mani the assertion of being the "Seal of the Prophets." Within the prevailing Islamic context of the Arabian Peninsula and Persia during that era, it is plausible that Manichaeans frequently proclaimed Mani, rather than Muhammad, as the "Seal of the Prophets" in their proselytization efforts. However, for Mani himself, this metaphorical phrase did not signify his position as the ultimate prophet in a succession, as it does in Islamic theology. Instead, it denoted the conclusive nature of his message for his adherents, who regarded it as a definitive "seal."

Mani's scriptures also drew upon other textual sources, including the Aramaic Jewish Book of Enoch, 2 Enoch, and The Book of Giants. Mani directly cited and elaborated on The Book of Giants, transforming it into a distinctively Manichaean rendition that became one of the six foundational Syriac texts within Manichaeism. Prior to the 20th century, no original editions of the Manichaean Book of Giants were extant, apart from brief mentions by non-Manichaean writers over several centuries.

During the 20th century, scattered fragments of both the original Aramaic Book of Giants, analyzed and published by Józef Milik in 1976, and its Manichaean counterpart (analyzed and published by Walter Bruno Henning in 1943) were unearthed. These discoveries occurred alongside the Dead Sea Scrolls in the Judaean Desert and among the Manichaean texts from the Uyghur Manichaean kingdom in Turpan. Henning, in his analysis of these fragments, observed:

It is noteworthy that Mani, who was brought up and spent most of his life in a province of the Persian empire, and whose mother belonged to a famous Parthian family, did not make any use of the Iranian mythological tradition. There can no longer be any doubt that the Iranian names of Sām, Narīmān, etc., that appear in the Persian and Sogdian versions of the Book of the Giants, did not figure in the original edition, written by Mani in the Syriac language.

Scholarly analysis, comparing the cosmology presented in the Books of Enoch with that of the Book of Giants and the Manichaean myth, indicates that Manichaean cosmology is partly rooted in the detailed cosmological descriptions found within Enochic literature. This literature portrays a being, observed by prophets during their celestial ascensions, as a king enthroned in the highest heavens. Within Manichaean mythology, this entity, designated the "Great King of Honor," evolved into a deity safeguarding the entry to the World of Light, situated in the seventh of ten heavens. Across the Aramaic Book of Enoch, the Qumran writings, and the original Syriac portion of Manichaean scriptures cited by Theodore bar Konai, this figure is referred to as malkā rabbā d-iqārā ("the Great King of Honor").

Mani's intellectual development was also shaped by the writings of the Gnostic Bardaisan (154–222 CE). Bardaisan, who also composed in Syriac, articulated a dualistic worldview, interpreting existence through the interplay of light and darkness, a perspective integrated with Christian theological elements.

Richard Foltz posits Buddhist influences on Manichaeism, particularly noting Mani's early proselytizing journeys to the Kushan Empire, where several religious paintings in Bamyan are ascribed to him. Foltz states:

Buddhist influences were significant in the formation of Mani's religious thought. The transmigration of souls became a Manichaean belief, and the quadripartite structure of the Manichaean community, divided between male and female monks (the "elect") and lay followers (the "hearers") who supported them, appears to be based on that of the Buddhist sangha.

Lokakṣema, a Buddhist monk residing in second-century Kushan, initiated the translation of Pure Land Buddhist scriptures into Chinese approximately a century before Mani's emergence. Peter Bryder contends that surviving Chinese Manichaean texts often incorporate distinctively Buddhist terminology derived from Pure Land scriptures, including the phrase "pure land" (Chinese: 淨土; pinyin: jìngtǔ) itself. Nevertheless, Amitābha, the "Buddha of Infinite Light" and the primary figure of veneration in Pure Land Buddhism, is absent from Chinese Manichaeism, seemingly supplanted by a different deity.

Dissemination

The Roman Empire

Manichaeism was introduced to Rome in 280 by the apostle Psattiq, who had previously been active in Egypt during 244 and 251. By 290, the religion was thriving in the Faiyum region, and Manichaean monasteries were established in Rome by 312, coinciding with the pontificate of Pope Miltiades.

Persecution of Manichaeans commenced in the Sasanian Empire in 291, marked by the assassination of the apostle Mar Sisin, orchestrated by Emperor Bahram II, and the massacre of numerous followers. Subsequently, in 302, the Roman state initiated its first official response and legislative measures against Manichaeism under Emperor Diocletian. In an imperial edict, titled De Maleficiis et Manichaeis, which was incorporated into the Collatio Legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum and directed to the proconsul of Africa, Diocletian declared:

Diocletian asserted that the Manichaeans had established novel and unprecedented sects, challenging established doctrines and promoting their own corrupt beliefs. He characterized them as recent, monstrous growths originating from the hostile Persian nation, infiltrating the empire to commit atrocities, disrupt public order, and inflict severe harm upon civic communities. The emperor expressed concern that, over time, they would corrupt innocent and peaceful individuals with the "damnable customs and perverse laws of the Persians," akin to a "malignant poison." Consequently, he decreed severe penalties: the authors and leaders of these sects, along with their "abominable writings," were to be burned. Recalcitrant followers faced capital punishment and forfeiture of their possessions to the imperial treasury. Public officials or individuals of high social standing who adopted this "unheard-of, scandalous and wholly infamous creed" were to have their estates confiscated and be condemned to forced labor in the quarries of Phaeno or the mines of Proconnesus. Diocletian concluded by urging swift action to eradicate this "plague of iniquity" from the "most happy age" of his reign.

By 354, Hilary of Poitiers documented Manichaeism's substantial presence in Roman Gaul. In 381, Christian factions petitioned Emperor Theodosius I to revoke the civil rights of Manichaeans. Commencing in 382, Theodosius I enacted a series of imperial edicts aimed at suppressing Manichaeism and imposing penalties upon its adherents.

Augustine of Hippo (354–430) transitioned from Manichaeism to Christianity in 387. This conversion occurred in a period of escalating persecution, as Emperor Theodosius I had already decreed the execution of all Manichaean monks in 382 and would subsequently establish Christianity as the official Roman state religion in 391. Consequently, Roman persecution led to the near eradication of Manichaeism from Western Europe by the fifth century and from the eastern parts of the empire by the sixth century.

As detailed in his Confessions, Augustine of Hippo, after approximately nine or ten years as a "hearer" within the Manichaean faith, converted to Christianity and emerged as a formidable opponent of Manichaeism. His opposition, articulated in writings against his Manichaean adversary Faustus of Mileve, stemmed from his view that the Manichaean emphasis on salvific knowledge (gnosis) was excessively passive and ineffective in fostering personal transformation.

Augustine reflected that he previously believed sin originated not from the individual but from an external nature within. He admitted that this perspective appealed to his pride, allowing him to avoid acknowledging guilt or confessing wrongdoing. He preferred to attribute his faults to an "unknown thing" present within him but distinct from his true self. However, he later recognized that his impiety was entirely his own, creating an internal division, and that his sin was particularly intractable because he failed to perceive himself as a sinner.

Contemporary scholarship posits that Manichaean philosophical frameworks significantly shaped several of Augustine's theological concepts. These influences are observed in his understanding of the nature of good and evil, the concept of hell, the categorization of adherents into 'elect,' 'hearers,' and 'sinners,' his aversion to human experience and sexual activity, and the development of his dualistic theology.

Central Asia

Manichaean adherents were present in Sogdia, a region of Central Asia. Bögü Qaghan (759–780), the Uyghur khagan, adopted Manichaeism in 763 following a three-day theological discourse with its preachers. The religion's Babylonian center dispatched senior clerics to the Uyghurs, and Manichaeism subsequently served as the state religion for approximately a century until the dissolution of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840.

South Siberia

Following the Yenisei Kyrgyz's conquest of the Uyghur Khaganate, Manichaeism expanded northward into the Minusinsk Hollow. Archaeological investigations in the Uybat valley unearthed the remnants of a Manichaean complex, comprising six temples and five elemental sanctuaries, which exhibited architectural similarities to Sogdian constructions found in Tuva and Xinjiang. During the 1970s, a Manichaean temple, dated between the 8th and 10th centuries, was excavated in the Puyur-sukh valley, 90 km from the Uybat site. L.R. Kyzlasov interpreted these discoveries as substantiating Manichaeism's adoption as an official religion within the Kyrgyz Khaganate. This interpretation is further supported by a limited number of Khakassian Manichaean epitaphs; moreover, the Manichaean script demonstrably influenced the Yenisei runic script during its later developmental phases. Manichaeism persisted in South Siberia until the Mongol conquest. Subsequently, it contributed to the cultural development of the Sayano-Altai Turks (including Altaians, Khakas, and Tuvans), alongside the Khants, Selkups, Kets, and Evenks. This impact manifested in the daily beliefs of these indigenous populations and the lexical structure of their languages.

China

Eastward, Manichaeism disseminated via trade routes, reaching Chang'an, the imperial capital of Tang China.

Subsequent to the Tang dynasty, certain Manichaean factions became involved in agrarian uprisings. Numerous insurgent leaders leveraged religious tenets to galvanize their adherents. During the Song and Yuan dynasties in China, residual Manichaean influences persisted, contributing to the emergence of various sects, including the Red Turbans. In the Song dynasty, the Chinese pejoratively labeled Manichaeans as Chīcài shìmó (Chinese: 吃菜事魔), a term signifying those who "abstain from meat and worship demons."

According to Fozu Tongji, a significant historiographical work on Chinese Buddhism compiled by Buddhist scholars between 1258 and 1269, Manichaeans venerated the "White Buddha," with their leaders donning violet headgear and their adherents wearing white attire. Numerous Manichaeans engaged in insurrections against the Song government, which were ultimately suppressed. Subsequently, successive governments systematically suppressed Manichaeism and its adherents, leading to the religion's proscription in Ming China by 1370. Although Manichaeism was historically believed to have reached China solely by the late seventh century, recent archaeological findings indicate its presence in the region as early as the second half of the sixth century.

The nomadic Uyghur Khaganate, which existed for less than a century (744–840) in the southern Siberian steppe, established its capital at the fortified city of Ordu-Baliq on the Upper Orkhon River. By late 763, Manichaeism had been formally proclaimed the state religion of the Uyghur realm. Boku Tekin subsequently prohibited all previously practiced shamanistic rituals. His subjects presumably acquiesced to this decree. This is corroborated by reports indicating that the declaration of Manichaeism as the state religion was received with considerable enthusiasm in Ordu-Baliq. An inscription, attributed to the Khagan himself, records his pledge to the Manichaean high priests (the "Elect") to promptly execute their commands and accede to their petitions. An incomplete manuscript discovered in the Turfan Oasis bestows upon Boku Tekin the appellation zahag-i Mani ("Emanation of Mani" or "Descendant of Mani"), a designation of profound prestige among Central Asian Manichaeans.

Despite the ostensible conversion of the Uyghurs to Manichaeism, remnants of their earlier shamanistic practices endured. For example, in 765, merely two years after their official conversion, Uyghur forces engaged magicians to conduct specific rituals during a military campaign in China. Manichaean Uyghurs also maintained profound reverence for a sacred forest in Otuken. This religious shift spurred a significant increase in manuscript production across the Tarim Basin and Gansu (the area situated between the Tibetan and Huangtu plateaus), a trend that continued until the early 11th century. The Uyghur Khaganate subsequently collapsed in 840 following assaults by the Yenisei Kyrgyz, leading to the formation of the new Uyghur state of Qocho, with its capital established in the city of Qocho.

Al-Jahiz (776–868 or 869) posited that the peaceful tenets of Manichaeism contributed to the Uyghurs' subsequent military deficiencies and eventual decline. However, this assertion is challenged by the actual political and military ramifications of their conversion. Following the Uyghurs' migration to Turfan in the ninth century, the aristocracy initially retained Manichaean doctrines before eventually adopting Buddhism. Evidence of Manichaeism among the Uyghurs in Turfan is discernible in extant fragments of Uyghur Manichaean manuscripts. Indeed, Manichaeism sustained its rivalry with Buddhism for influence among the Uyghurs until the 13th century, with the Mongol conquests ultimately delivering the decisive blow to its presence.

Tibet

Manichaeism disseminated into Tibet during the era of the Tibetan Empire. A significant endeavor was undertaken to introduce this religion to the Tibetan populace, as evidenced by the text Criteria of the Authentic Scriptures (attributed to the Tibetan Emperor Trisong Detsen). This document vigorously critiques Manichaeism, asserting that Mani was a heretic who practiced religious syncretism, resulting in a divergent and inauthentic theological system.

Iran

Manichaeans within Iran sought to integrate their faith alongside Islam within the Muslim caliphates. Limited information exists regarding the religion during the initial century of Islamic governance. Nevertheless, during the early caliphate period, Manichaeism garnered numerous adherents, demonstrating considerable appeal within Muslim society, particularly among the elite. A specific aspect of Manichaeism that resonated with the Sasanians was the nomenclature of its deities. The names Mani assigned to the gods of his religion exhibited parallels with those of the Zoroastrian pantheon, notwithstanding the inclusion of some non-Iranian divine entities. For instance, Jesus, Adam, and Eve were designated Xradesahr, Gehmurd, and Murdiyanag, respectively. These familiar appellations rendered Manichaeism less alien to Zoroastrians. Consequently, the compelling nature of its doctrines led many Sasanians to embrace its theological concepts, with some even adopting dualistic beliefs.

Manichaeism captivated not only the populace of the Sasanian Empire but also its contemporary ruler, Shapur I. According to the Denkard, Shapur, the inaugural King of Kings, was renowned for his pursuit and acquisition of diverse knowledge. Recognizing this, Mani anticipated Shapur's receptiveness to his doctrines. During his introduction to Shapur, Mani explicitly presented his religion as a reformation of Zoroaster's teachings. This proposition greatly intrigued the king, aligning perfectly with Shapur's vision of establishing a vast empire that embraced all peoples and their varied beliefs. Consequently, Manichaeism proliferated and thrived across the Sasanian Empire for three decades. An apologia for Manichaeism, attributed to ibn al-Muqaffa', defended its fantastical cosmogony while critiquing the fideism inherent in Islam and other monotheistic faiths. The Manichaean community possessed a structured organization, including a designated leader.

Following the demise of Shapur I, tolerance for Manichaeism diminished. His son and successor, Hormizd I, permitted Manichaeism within the empire but also placed considerable trust in the Zoroastrian priest, Kartir. After Hormizd's brief reign, his elder brother, Bahram I, ascended to the throne. Bahram I held Kartir in high regard and espoused religious principles that diverged significantly from those of Hormizd and Shapur I. Under Kartir's influence, Zoroastrianism gained strength throughout the empire, concurrently weakening Manichaeism. Bahram subsequently imprisoned Mani, who ultimately died in confinement.

Arab world

The presence of Manichaeism in the Arabian Peninsula, including the Hejaz and Mecca, and its potential influence on the development of Islamic doctrine, remains unsubstantiated in pre-Islamic Arabia, as no formal Manichaean presence existed in the Hejaz. During the eighth-century Abbasid Caliphate, the Arabic term zindīq and its adjectival form zandaqa encompassed various meanings, though they primarily, or at least initially, referred to adherents of Manichaeism. Historical accounts indicate that Caliph al-Ma'mun, in the ninth century, permitted a Manichaean community to exist.

Manichaeans faced significant persecution during the early Abbasid era. Caliph al-Mahdi, the third Abbasid ruler, initiated an inquisition targeting dualists; those convicted of heresy who refused to recant their beliefs were executed. Harun al-Rashid concluded these persecutions in the 780s. Subsequently, under Caliph al-Muqtadir, numerous Manichaeans migrated from Mesopotamia to Khorasan to escape further persecution, leading to the relocation of the religion's primary center to Samarkand.

Bactria

Manichaeism first emerged in Bactria during Mani's lifetime. Although Mani himself did not physically Mani specifically "summoned Mar Ammo, the teacher, who possessed knowledge of the Parthian language and script, and was well-acquainted with the nobility and prominent individuals in those territories..."

Mar Ammo journeyed to the former Parthian territories of eastern Iran, which bordered Bactria. According to a translated Persian text, Mar Ammo recounted: "Upon reaching the Kushān (Bactria) watch post, the border spirit of the eastern province manifested as a girl, inquiring, 'Ammo, what is your purpose? From where have you arrived?' I responded, 'I am a believer, a disciple of Mani, the Apostle.' The spirit then declared, 'I will not accept you. Return to your origin.'"

Notwithstanding Mar Ammo's initial rebuff, the narrative indicates that Mani's spirit subsequently appeared to him, urging perseverance and instructing him to read the chapter "The Collecting of the Gates" from The Treasure of the Living. Following this, the spirit reappeared, transformed, and proclaimed, "I am Bag Ard, the frontier guard of the Eastern Province. Your acceptance by me will signify the opening of the entire East's gate before you." This "border spirit" appears to have been an allusion to Ardoksho, a local Eastern Iranian goddess widely venerated in Bactria.

Syncretism and Translation

Manichaeism asserted that it offered the uncorrupted and definitive teachings of Adam, Abraham, Noah, Zoroaster, the Buddha, and Jesus, which it contended had been distorted and misunderstood over time. Consequently, as the religion expanded, it integrated deities from other belief systems, adapting them for inclusion in its sacred texts. Notably, its foundational Eastern Middle Aramaic scriptures already incorporated narratives concerning Jesus.

With the eastward expansion of Manichaeism and the translation of its scriptures into Iranian languages, the nomenclature of Manichaean deities frequently assimilated into that of Zoroastrian yazatas. For instance, Abbā ḏəRabbūṯā ("The Father of Greatness"), the supreme Manichaean deity of Light, could be rendered in Middle Persian texts either as a literal translation, pīd ī wuzurgīh, or by substituting the name of the deity Zurwān.

In a similar vein, the Manichaean primordial entity Nāšā Qaḏmāyā ("The Original Man") was reinterpreted as Ohrmazd Bay, drawing parallels with the Zoroastrian deity Ohrmazd. This syncretic adaptation persisted as Manichaeism encountered Chinese Buddhism. For example, the original Aramaic term קריא qaryā, signifying the "call" from the World of Light to individuals seeking deliverance from the World of Darkness, is equated in Chinese scriptures with Guanyin (觀音 or Avalokiteśvara in Sanskrit, meaning "watching/perceiving sounds [of the world]"), the bodhisattva of Compassion.

Manichaeism exerted influence on certain foundational texts and traditions within proto-orthodox and other early Christian denominations, and similarly impacted various branches of Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Buddhism, and Islam.

Persecution and Suppression

The Sasanian Empire initiated the repression of Manichaeism. In 291, persecution intensified within the Persian empire, marked by the assassination of the apostle Sisin by Bahram II and the massacre of numerous Manichaeans. Subsequently, in 296, Roman Emperor Diocletian issued an edict mandating the immolation of all Manichaean leaders and their scriptures, leading to the deaths of many Manichaeans across Europe and North Africa. Legislative action against Manichaeism resumed in 372 under Valentinian I and Valens.

In 382, Theodosius I promulgated a decree ordering the execution of all Manichaean monks. Manichaeism faced intense assault and persecution from both the Christian Church and the Roman state, resulting in its near eradication from Western Europe by the fifth century and from the eastern part of the empire by the sixth century.

In 732, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang prohibited Chinese citizens from converting to Manichaeism, denouncing it as a heretical faith that misled people by falsely associating itself with Buddhism. Nevertheless, foreign adherents were permitted to practice the religion without penalty. Following the collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840, which had been the primary patron of Manichaeism in China and its state religion, all Manichaean temples in China, with the exception of those in the two capitals and Taiyuan, were permanently closed. These temples were perceived by the Chinese as emblems of foreign arrogance. Even the temples initially permitted to remain open were eventually shut down.

Manichaean temples faced assaults from Chinese populations, who incinerated the images and idols within these sanctuaries. Manichaean priests were compelled to adopt hanfu, a traditional Chinese garment, in place of their customary attire, which was deemed un-Chinese. In 843, Emperor Wuzong of Tang commanded the execution of all Manichaean clerics as part of the Huichang persecution of Buddhism, resulting in the deaths of over half of them. Authorities forcibly assimilated them to Buddhist appearance by shaving their heads and dressing them as Buddhist monks before their execution.

Numerous Manichaeans participated in insurrections against the Song dynasty. These rebellions were suppressed by Song China, and the religion subsequently endured suppression and persecution under all successive governments until the Mongol Yuan dynasty. In 1370, the Ming dynasty formally prohibited Manichaeism through an imperial edict, largely due to the Hongwu Emperor's personal antipathy towards the faith. Nevertheless, its fundamental doctrines influenced various religious factions in China, including the White Lotus movement.

Wendy Doniger suggests that Manichaeism might have persisted in the Xinjiang region until the Mongol conquest in the 13th century.

Manichaeans also experienced a period of persecution under the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad. In 780, the third Abbasid Caliph, al-Mahdi, initiated an inquisitorial campaign targeting "dualist heretics" or "Manichaeans," referred to as the zindīq. He established the position of "master of the heretics" (Arabic: صاحب الزنادقة ṣāhib al-zanādiqa), an official tasked with identifying and investigating suspected dualists, who were subsequently interrogated by the Caliph. Individuals found guilty who declined to renounce their beliefs faced execution.

This persecution persisted under al-Mahdi's successor, Caliph al-Hadi, and continued for a period during the reign of Harun al-Rashid, who ultimately terminated it. However, during the rule of the 18th Abbasid Caliph al-Muqtadir, numerous Manichaeans, fearing renewed persecution, migrated from Mesopotamia to Khorasan, with approximately 500 congregating in Samarkand. Consequently, the religious center of Manichaeism later relocated to Samarkand, which then served as its new Patriarchate.

In 9th-century Byzantine Constantinople, Manichaean pamphlets written in Greek remained in circulation, as evidenced by Patriarch Photios, who summarized and analyzed a text by Agapius that he had read in his Bibliotheca.

Subsequent Movements Linked to Manichaeism

During the Middle Ages, the Catholic Church collectively labeled several emerging movements as "Manichaean" and subsequently persecuted them as Christian heresies following the Inquisition's establishment in 1184. Notable among these were the Cathar churches prevalent in Western Europe. Additional groups, occasionally termed "neo-Manichaean," encompassed the Paulician movement originating in Armenia and the Bogomils found in Bulgaria and Serbia. This classification is exemplified by the published Latin Cathar text, the Liber de duobus principiis (Book of the Two Principles), whose publishers characterized it as "Neo-Manichaean." However, the absence of Manichaean mythology or ecclesiastical terminology in the extant writings of these groups has led to historical debate regarding their direct lineage from Manichaeism.

It is plausible that Manichaeism exerted an influence on the Bogomils, Paulicians, and Cathars. Nevertheless, the scarcity of surviving records from these groups renders any direct connection to Manichaeism tenuous. Irrespective of its factual basis, the accusation of Manichaeism was frequently directed at these movements by their orthodox contemporaries, who often sought to align emergent heresies with those previously confronted by the early Church Fathers.

It remains indeterminable whether the dualistic doctrines of the Paulicians, Bogomils, and Cathars, including their conviction that a Satanic demiurge created the world, were directly influenced by Manichaeism. The Cathars, however, appear to have incorporated Manichaean principles concerning ecclesiastical structure. Furthermore, Priscillian and his adherents might also have been subject to Manichaean influences. Significantly, Manichaeans were instrumental in preserving numerous apocryphal Christian texts, such as the Acts of Thomas, which might otherwise have been lost to history.

Contemporary Legacy

Several historical sites associated with Manichaeism are preserved across China, specifically in Xinjiang, Zhejiang, and Fujian provinces. Among these, the Cao'an temple stands as the most renowned and well-preserved Manichaean edifice, despite its later syncretic association with Buddhism. Villagers residing in the vicinity of Cao'an continue to venerate Mani, often making little distinction between Mani conceived as a Buddha and Gautama Buddha. Additional temples in China linked to Manichaeism persist, such as the Xuanzhen Temple, recognized for its distinctive stele.

Certain digital platforms, including internet forums and social media, disseminate aspects of Manichaean teachings. While individuals engage with these electronic resources, academic interest in Manichaeism persists among scholars and students in religious studies and the arts.

In 2018, commemorative rituals were performed for Lin Deng 林瞪 (1003–1059), a prominent Chinese Manichaean leader from the Song dynasty, across three villages—Baiyang 柏洋村, Shangwan 上萬村, and Tahou 塔後村—within Baiyang Township, Xiapu County, Fujian.

Teachings and beliefs

General

Mani's doctrine confronted the problem of evil by positing a theoretical framework that denied divine omnipotence, instead proposing the existence of two antagonistic divine powers. Manichaean theology is fundamentally characterized by a dualistic conception of good and evil. Central to Manichaeism is the conviction that a potent, yet not omnipotent, benevolent power (God) perpetually contended with an eternal malevolent power (the devil). Humanity, the cosmos, and the individual soul are consequently understood as emergent products of this cosmic conflict between God's emissary, Primal Man, and the devil.

The human individual is conceptualized as an arena for these opposing forces, with the soul, which defines the person, being subject to influences from both light and darkness. This cosmic struggle extends globally, and the human body—along with the Earth itself—was not considered inherently evil; rather, both were understood to embody aspects of both light and darkness. Consequently, natural phenomena, such as rainfall, were interpreted as physical manifestations of this underlying spiritual conflict. Thus, Manichaean doctrine accounted for the presence of evil by proposing a flawed creation, a process in which God played no role, and which instead resulted from the devil's adversarial struggle against God.

Cosmogony

Manichaeism posits a complex dualistic conflict between a spiritual realm of light and a material realm of darkness. Entities within both the luminous and dark worlds are specifically named. Extensive sources elucidate Manichaean doctrines. Among these, two scriptural fragments are considered the most authentic representations of the original writings in their native languages: an 8th-century Syriac quotation by Theodore bar Konai, a Christian of the Church of the East, found in his Syriac scholion known as the Ketba de-Skolion; and the Middle Persian segments of Mani's Shabuhragan, a compendium of Mani's teachings for Shapur I, discovered in Turpan.

Drawing upon these and additional sources, including the Acta Archelai and the works of Alexander of Lycopolis, Titus of Bostra, Severus of Antiochia, Theodoret, and Saint Augustine of Hippo, Jonas Hans formulated a comprehensive account of Manichaean cosmogony. The subsequent section details a complete enumeration of Manichaean deities. The Manichaean cosmogonic narrative unfolds across three distinct phases:

The First Creation

Initially, good and evil were segregated into two entirely distinct domains: the World of Light (Chinese: 明界), governed by the Father of Greatness and his five Shekhinas (representing divine attributes of light), and the World of Darkness, presided over by the King of Darkness. In the remote past, the Kingdom of Darkness perceived the World of Light, desired it, and subsequently launched an assault. The Father of Greatness, initiating the first of three "calls" or "creations," summoned the Mother of Life, who dispatched her son, Original Man (Imperial Aramaic: Nāšā Qaḏmāyā), to confront the invading forces of Darkness, among whom was the Demon of Greed.

The Original Man was equipped with five distinct shields of light, which were reflections of the five Shekhinas. During the subsequent conflict, he lost these shields to the forces of Darkness. This loss is characterized as a strategic "bait" designed to deceive the dark entities, who voraciously absorbed the light. Upon awakening, the Original Man found himself ensnared within the forces of Darkness.

The Second Creation

Subsequently, the Father of Greatness initiated the Second Creation. He summoned the Living Spirit, who, in turn, called upon his sons and the Original Man. Following this, the concept of "Call" itself became a distinct Manichaean deity. An "Answer" also materialized as another Manichaean deity, emanating from the Original Man and proceeding into the World of Light. The Mother of Life, the Living Spirit, and the Living Spirit's five sons commenced the creation of the cosmos, utilizing the bodies of the malevolent entities from the World of Darkness and the light they had consumed. This process resulted in the formation of ten heavens and eight earths, each composed of diverse amalgamations of the dark material beings and the ingested light. The sun, moon, and stars were all fashioned from light reclaimed from the World of Darkness. The lunar cycle, specifically the moon's waxing and waning, is conceptualized as the "moon filling with light," which then transfers to the sun, traverses the Milky Way, and ultimately returns to the World of Light.

The Third Creation: Seduction of the Archons

The Father of Greatness initiated the Third Creation, during which formidable demons, identified as archons in bar-Konai's narrative, were suspended above the heavens. Light was subsequently retrieved from the corporeal forms of malevolent entities and demons through the strategic evocation of their avarice, utilizing alluring representations of luminous beings like the Third Messenger and the Virgins of Light. Augustine of Hippo's interpretation of Manichaean texts indicates that the Virgins of Light extracted light from both female and male archons by manifesting as "beardless boys" and "beautiful virgins." Conversely, other accounts, such as Al-Biruni's Kitab al-Hind and Ephrem the Syrian's Refutations of Mani, describe the myth as featuring a single, transiently gendered or androgynous entity, the Maiden of Light, responsible for the seduction; alternative versions depict multiple sexless entities referred to as shining warriors. Nevertheless, immediately upon the expulsion of light from their bodies, which then descended to Earth (occasionally manifesting as abortions, a concept linked to the origin of fallen angels in Manichaean mythology), the malevolent entities persistently consumed as much of it as possible to retain the light within themselves. These malevolent beings ingested substantial amounts of light, engaged in procreation, and consequently engendered Adam and Eve. Subsequently, the Father of Greatness dispatched Jesus the Splendour to awaken Adam and reveal the authentic origin of the light confined within his physical form. Adam and Eve, however, also procreated, generating further human beings and thereby perpetuating the entrapment of light within human bodies across historical epochs. The advent of the Prophet Mani represented a subsequent endeavor by the World of Light to disclose to humanity the genuine wellspring of the spiritual luminescence incarcerated within their corporeal existence.

Cosmology

During the sixth century, numerous Manichaeans conceptualized the Earth as a rectangular parallelepiped encased by crystal walls, surmounted by three celestial domes, with the subsequent two domes positioned above and exceeding the size of the preceding ones, respectively. These structures symbolized the "three heavens" as understood within Chaldean religious traditions.

An Overview of Entities and Events in Manichaean Mythology

Since its inception by Mani, Manichaeism has consistently incorporated an elaborate exposition of deities and cosmic events within its overarching universal framework. These identical deities are consistently re-articulated across every linguistic and geographical domain to which Manichaeism expanded, whether through the original Syriac cited by Theodore bar Konai, the Latin nomenclature provided by Saint Augustine from Mani's Epistola Fundamenti, or the Persian and Chinese renditions discovered as Manichaeism propagated eastward. Although the original Syriac texts preserved Mani's initial descriptions, subsequent translations into diverse languages and cultural contexts generated divine manifestations not inherently present in the foundational Syriac works. Notably, Chinese translations exhibit a pronounced syncretic character, frequently incorporating and adapting terminology prevalent in Chinese Buddhism.

The World of Light

• The Father of Greatness (Syriac: ܐܒܐ ܕܪܒܘܬܐ Abbā dəRabbūṯā; Middle Persian: pīd ī wuzurgīh, or the Zoroastrian deity Zurwān; Parthian: Pidar wuzurgift, Pidar roshn; Chinese: 無上明尊; lit. 'Unsurpassed Divinity of Light' or 薩緩 lit.'Zurvan')
  • His Four Faces (Greek: ὁ τετραπρόσωπος πατήρ τοῦ μεγέθους; Chinese: 四寂法身; lit. 'Four Silent Dharmakayas')
    • Divinity (Middle Persian: yzd; Parthian: bg'; Chinese: 清净)
    • Light (Middle Persian and Parthian: rwšn; Chinese: 光明)
    • Power (Middle Persian: zwr; Parthian: z'wr'; Chinese: 大力)
    • Wisdom (Middle Persian: whyh; Parthian: jyryft; Chinese: 智慧)
  • His Five Shekhinas (Syriac: ܚܡܫ ܫܟܝܢܬܗ khamesh shkhinatei; Chinese: 五種大 wǔ zhǒng dà, lit.'five great ones'):

• The Great Spirit (Middle Persian: Waxsh zindag, Waxsh yozdahr; Latin: Spiritus Potens)

The First Creation

• The Mother of Life (Syriac: ܐܡܐ ܕܚܝܐ imā dəḥayyē; Middle Persian: mʾdrʾy zyndgʾn; Chinese: 善母佛; lit. 'Good Mother Buddha')
• The entity known as The First Man is identified by various linguistic forms: in Syriac as ܐܢܫܐ ܩܕܡܝܐ (Nāšā Qaḏmāyā), in Middle Persian as Ohrmazd Bay (associated with the Zoroastrian deity of light and goodness), and in Latin as Primus Homo. This figure is also linked to the concept of the
  • First Enthymesis, which is rendered in Middle Persian as hndyšyšn nxwysṯyn and in Chinese as 先意, literally meaning 'First Understanding' (lit.).
  • The First Man is associated with His five Sons, representing the five Light Elements. These are referred to in Parthian as panj rōšn, in Middle Persian as Amahrāspandān, and in Chinese as 五明子. One of these elements is
    • Ether, known in Parthian as ardāw, in Middle Persian as frâwahr, and in Chinese as 氣.
    • Another of these elements is Wind, designated as wād in both Parthian and Middle Persian, and as 風 in Chinese.
    • The element of Light is identified as rōšn in Parthian and Middle Persian, and as 明 in Chinese.
    • The element of Water is referred to as āb in Parthian and Middle Persian, and as 水 in Chinese.
    • Finally, the element of Fire is known as ādur in Parthian and Middle Persian, and as 火 in Chinese.
  • The sixth Son of the First Man is the Answer-God, identified in Syriac as ܥܢܝܐ (ʻanyā), in Parthian and Middle Persian as xroshtag, and in Chinese as 勢至 (Shì Zhì), which translates to "The Power of Wisdom" and refers to a Chinese bodhisattva. This figure represents the response dispatched by the First Man in answer to the Call originating from the World of Light.
• The concept of The Living Self is expressed in Parthian and Middle Persian as grīw zīndag or grīw rōšn, and in Chinese as 明性, literally meaning 'Light Nature' (lit.). This entity functions as the anima mundi, composed of the five Light Elements, and is considered synonymous with the Suffering Jesus, who is depicted as crucified within the world.

The second creation

• The Friend of the Lights, known in Syriac as ܚܒܝܒ ܢܗܝܖܐ (ḥaviv nehirē) and in Chinese as 樂明佛 (literally 'Enjoyer of Lights' (lit.)), initiates a call to:
• The Great Builder, identified in Syriac as ܒܢ ܖܒܐ (ban rabbā) and in Chinese as 造相 (literally 'Creator of Forms' (lit.)). This entity is responsible for the creation of a new world designed to delineate darkness from light, and in turn, calls to:
• The Living Spirit, known by various names including Syriac ܪܘܚܐ ܚܝܐ (ruḥā ḥayyā), Middle Persian Mihryazd, Chinese 淨活風 (pinyin: Jìnghuófēng), Latin Spiritus Vivens, and Greek Ζων Πνευμα. This figure functions as a demiurge, constructing the framework of the material world. The Living Spirit is associated with
  • His five Sons, referred to in Syriac as ܚܡܫܐ ܒܢܘܗܝ (ḥamšā benawhy) and in Chinese as 五等驍健子 (literally 'Five Valiant Sons' (lit.)). Among these sons is
    • The Keeper of the Splendour, known in Syriac as ܨܦܬ ܙܝܘܐ (ṣfat ziwā), in Latin as Splenditenens, and in Chinese as 催光明使 (literally 'Urger of Enlightenment' (lit.)). This entity is tasked with upholding the ten heavens from above.
    • Another of these sons is The King of Glory, identified in Syriac as ܡܠܟ ܫܘܒܚܐ (mlex šuvḥā), in Latin as Rex Gloriosus, and in Chinese as 地藏 (Dìzàng), which translates to "Earth Treasury" and refers to a Chinese bodhisattva.
    • The entity known as The Adamas of Light is also among these sons, referred to in Syriac as ܐܕܡܘܣ ܢܘܗܪܐ (adamus nuhrā), in Latin as Adamas, and in Chinese as 降魔使 (pinyin: Jiàngmó shǐ). This figure engages in combat with and ultimately vanquishes an evil being that manifests in the likeness of the King of Darkness.
    • The Great King of Honour is another of these sons, known in Syriac as ܡܠܟܐ ܪܒܐ ܕܐܝܩܪܐ (malkā rabbā dikkārā), in Dead Sea Scrolls Imperial Aramaic as מלכא ܪבא דאיקרא (malka raba de-ikara), in Latin as Rex Honoris, and in Chinese as 十天大王 (pinyin: Shítiān Dàwáng), literally meaning 'Ten Heavens Great King' (lit.). This being holds a pivotal role in The Book of Enoch (originally composed in Aramaic) and in Mani's Syriac rendition, The Book of Giants. It resides in the seventh of the ten heavens (which correspond to celestial spheres, with the initial seven housing the classical planets) and safeguards the entry point to the world of light. In the Syriac Aramaic narrative, this guarded entrance is termed maṭarta (Syriac: ܡܛܪܬܐ maṭarta).
    • Atlas, also one of the sons, is known in Syriac as ܣܒܠܐ (sebblā), in Latin as Atlas, and in Chinese as 持世主 (pinyin: Chíshìzhǔ). This entity is responsible for supporting the eight worlds from below.
  • The sixth Son of the Living Spirit is the Call-God, identified in Syriac as ܩܪܝܐ (qaryā), in Middle Persian as Padvaxtag, and in Chinese as 觀音 (Guanyin), which signifies "watching/perceiving sounds [of the world]" and refers to the Chinese Bodhisattva of Compassion. This figure is dispatched from the Living Spirit to rouse the First Man from his conflict with the forces of darkness.

The third creation

• The entity known as The Third Messenger is identified in Syriac as ܐܝܙܓܕܐ (izgaddā), in Middle Persian as narēsahyazad, in Parthian as hridīg frēštag, and in Latin as tertius legatus.
• Jesus the Splendour is a figure identified by various linguistic terms: in Syriac as ܝܫܘܥ ܙܝܘܐ (Ishoʻ Ziwā), and in Chinese as 光明夷數, which literally translates to 'Jesus of Bright Light', or 夷數精和, meaning 'Jesus the Essence of Harmony''. This entity was tasked with awakening Adam and Eve to the spiritual light inherent within their physical forms.
• The Maiden of Light is designated by the Middle Persian and Parthian term qnygrwšn, and by the Chinese term 謹你嚧詵, which represents a phonetic borrowing from Middle Persian.
• The Twelve Virgins of Light are referred to in Syriac as ܬܪܬܥܣܪܐ ܒܬܘܠܬܐ (tratʻesrā btultē), in Middle Persian as kanīgān rōšnān, and in Chinese as 日宮十二化女 (pinyin: Rìgōng shí'èr huànǚ), which translates literally to 'Sun Palace Twelve Maidens of Transformation'. These figures are considered to be reflected in the twelve constellations of the Zodiac.
• The Column of Glory is identified by the Syriac term ܐܣܛܘܢ ܫܘܒܚܐ (esṭun šuvḥā), the Middle Persian term srōš-ahrāy, and the Chinese terms 蘇露沙羅夷 (pinyin: Sūlù shāluóyí) and 盧舍那 (Lúshěnà), both of which are phonetic transcriptions of the Middle Persian srōš-ahrāy. This concept represents the path souls traverse to reach the World of Light, analogous to the Milky Way.
• The Great Nous is associated with
  • His five Limbs (Chinese: 五體). The first limb is
    • Reason.
    • Mind
    • Intelligence
    • Thought
    • Understanding
• The Just Judge is known in Parthian as d'dbr r'štygr and in Chinese as 平等王, which literally signifies 'Impartial King'.
• The Last God

The World of Darkness

• The Prince of Darkness is identified in Syriac as ܡܠܟ ܚܫܘܟܐ (mlex ḥešoxā) and in Middle Persian as Ahriman, a figure corresponding to the supreme evil entity in Zoroastrianism. This entity presides over
  • His five evil kingdoms, which are conceived as malevolent counterparts to the five elements of light, with the kingdom of Darkness representing the lowest realm.
  • His son is named ܐܫܩܠܘܢ (Ashaklun) in Syriac and Az in Middle Persian, a name derived from the Zoroastrian demon Aži Dahāka.
  • His son's mate is referred to in Syriac as ܢܒܪܘܐܠ (Nevro'el).
  • Their offspring are Adam and Eve, known in Middle Persian as Gehmurd and Murdiyanag, respectively.
• Giants, also identified as Fallen Angels or Abortions, are designated by several terms: in Syriac as ܝܚܛܐ (yaḥtē), meaning "abortions" or "those that fell," and also as ܐܪܟܘܢܬܐ; and in Greek as Ἐγρήγοροι (Egrēgoroi), signifying "Giants." This concept is linked to the narrative of fallen angels found in the Book of Enoch, a text extensively utilized by Mani in "The Book of Giants," and to the נפילים (nephilim) mentioned in Genesis (6:1–4).

The Manichaean Church

Organizational Structure

The Manichaean Church was structured into two primary groups: the Elect, who had formally committed to the vows of Manichaeism, and the Hearers, who participated in the Church without undertaking these vows. The Elect were prohibited from consuming alcohol and meat, and from engaging in agricultural harvesting or food preparation, based on Mani's doctrine that harvesting constituted a form of violence against plants. Consequently, the Hearers performed the task of food preparation, thereby incurring this sin, and supplied provisions to the Elect, who, in return, offered prayers for the Hearers to absolve them of these transgressions.

While the terminology for these divisions was prevalent during early Christianity, its application within Manichaeism differed significantly from its Christian interpretation. In Chinese texts, the Middle Persian and Parthian designations are rendered phonetically rather than being translated semantically. These distinctions were documented by Augustine of Hippo.

• The ecclesiastical head, known as The Leader, was Mani's appointed successor and served as the Patriarch of the Church, initially based in Ctesiphon and later, from the ninth century, in Samarkand. This role is identified by the Syriac term ܟܗܢܐ (/kɑhnɑ/), the Parthian term yamag, and the Chinese term 閻默 (pinyin: yánmò). Prominent figures who held this position include Mār Sīsin (also known as Sisinnios), who was Mani's immediate successor, and Abū Hilāl al-Dayhūri, an influential leader during the eighth century.
• The Manichaean hierarchy included 12 Apostles, referred to in Latin as magistrī, in Syriac as ܫܠܝܚܐ (/ʃ(ə)liħe/), in Middle Persian as možag, and in Chinese as 慕闍 (pinyin: mùdū). Among Mani's initial apostles were Mār Pattī (also known as Pattikios, who was Mani's father), Akouas, and Mar Ammo.
• The organizational structure also comprised 72 Bishops, identified by the Latin term episcopī, the Syriac term ܐܦܣܩܘܦܐ (/ʔappisqoppe/), the Middle Persian terms aspasag and aftadan, and the Chinese terms 薩波塞 (pinyin: sàbōsāi) or 拂多誕 (pinyin: fúduōdàn). Mār Addā, one of Mani's initial disciples, was specifically designated as a bishop.
• The Presbyters, numbering 360, were designated by various terms across different languages: Latin presbyterī, Syriac ܩܫܝܫܐ /qaʃʃiʃe/, Middle Persian mahistan, and Chinese 默奚悉德 (pinyin: mòxīxīdé).
• The general body of the Elect was known as ēlēctī in Latin, ܡܫܡܫܢܐ /m(ə)ʃamməʃɑne/ in Syriac, and either ardawan or dēnāwar in Middle Persian. In Chinese, they were referred to as 阿羅緩 (pinyin: āluóhuǎn) or 電那勿 (pinyin: diànnàwù).
• The Hearers were identified by the Latin term audītōrēs, the Syriac ܫܡܘܥܐ /ʃɑmoʿe/, the Middle Persian niyoshagan, and the Chinese 耨沙喭 (pinyin: nòushāyàn).

Religious Practices

Prayers

Manichaean sources indicate that adherents engaged in daily prayer rituals, with Hearers performing four prayers and the Elect observing seven. Discrepancies exist among historical sources regarding the precise timing of these prayers. Al-Nadim's Fihrist specifies prayer times as afternoon, mid-afternoon, just after sunset, and at nightfall. Conversely, Al-Biruni identifies prayer times as dawn, sunrise, noon, and dusk. The Elect further observed additional prayers at mid-afternoon, half an hour after nightfall, and midnight. Al-Nadim's account of daily prayers was likely adapted to align with Muslim public prayer schedules, whereas Al-Biruni's report potentially represents an earlier tradition predating Islamic influence.

Initially, when Al-Nadim's detailed account of daily prayers constituted the sole available source, a concern emerged that the described Manichaean practices might have been influenced by or exclusively developed during the Abbasid Caliphate. However, subsequent analysis revealed that Al-Nadim's Arabic text aligns with descriptions found in fourth-century Egyptian texts, thereby confirming the antiquity of these practices.

Each prayer commenced with an ablution using water or, if water was unavailable, other substances analogous to Islamic ablution rituals. The prayer involved a series of blessings directed towards apostles and spirits, and each prayer session included twelve cycles of prostration and rising. During daylight hours, Manichaeans oriented themselves towards the Sun, and at night, towards the Moon. In the absence of a visible Moon at night, the orientation shifted northward.

According to Faustus of Mileve, celestial bodies were not objects of worship themselves. Instead, they were perceived as 'ships' transporting the world's light particles to the unseen supreme deity, who transcends time and space, and also as dwelling places for emanations of this supreme deity, such as Jesus the Splendour. Augustine of Hippo's writings describe the performance of ten prayers: the initial prayer was dedicated to the Father of Greatness, with subsequent prayers addressed to lesser deities, spirits, and angels, culminating in prayers directed towards the Elect, seeking liberation from rebirth and suffering, and the attainment of peace in the realm of light. Similarly, the Uyghur confession specifies four prayers, which are directed towards the supreme God (Äzrua), the God of the Sun and the Moon, the Fivefold God, and the Buddhas.

Primary Sources

Mani authored seven books, which encapsulated the religion's core doctrines. Of these, only scattered fragments and translations of the original texts persist, with the majority unearthed in Egypt and Turkistan during the 20th century.

While the original six Syriac writings are no longer extant, their Syriac titles have been preserved, and fragments and quotations from these works exist. A substantial quotation, preserved by the eighth-century Nestorian Christian author Theodore Bar Konai, indicates an absence of Iranian or Zoroastrian terminological influence in Mani's original Syriac Aramaic writings, where the nomenclature for Manichaean deities is Aramaic. Nevertheless, the adaptation of Manichaeism to incorporate Zoroastrian religious elements appears to have commenced during Mani's lifetime, notably with his composition of the Middle Persian work Shabuhragan, a book dedicated to the Sasanian emperor Shapur I.

This work includes references to Zoroastrian divinities, specifically Ahura Mazda, Angra Mainyu, and Āz. Manichaeism is frequently characterized as a Persian religion, primarily owing to the extensive collection of Middle Persian, Parthian, and Sogdian (along with Turkish) texts unearthed by German researchers near Turpan, in contemporary Xinjiang, China, during the early 20th century. However, when viewed from the perspective of its original Syriac descriptions (as cited by Theodore Bar Konai and previously discussed), Manichaeism is more accurately characterized as a distinctive phenomenon originating in Aramaic Babylonia. It emerged contemporaneously with two other novel Aramaic religious movements, Talmudic Judaism and Mandaeism, both of which also arose in Babylonia around the third century.

The six foundational sacred texts of Manichaeism, originally composed in Syriac Aramaic, are now lost in their original form. These works were translated into various languages to facilitate the religion's dissemination. Eastern expansion led to translations into Middle Persian, Parthian, Sogdian, Tocharian, and eventually Uyghur and Chinese. Conversely, westward propagation involved translations into Greek, Coptic, and Latin. Consequently, the majority of extant Manichaean texts exist solely as Coptic and Medieval Chinese translations of these lost originals.

Henning elucidates the evolution of this translation process and its impact on Manichaeans in Central Asia:

Undoubtedly, Sogdian served as the primary language for most Manichaean clerics and proselytizers in Central Asia. Middle Persian (Pārsīg), and to a lesser extent Parthian (Pahlavānīg), held a linguistic status comparable to Latin within the medieval Christian church. While the founder of Manichaeism utilized Syriac, his native tongue, as his primary medium, he notably composed at least one work in Middle Persian. It is also probable that he personally oversaw the translation of some or all of his extensive Syriac writings into Middle Persian. This facilitated Eastern Manichaeans' ability to forgo studying Mani's original texts, instead relying on the Middle Persian versions. Their proficiency in Middle Persian was readily attainable due to its linguistic kinship with Sogdian.

Works Originally Composed in Syriac

• The Gospel of Mani (Syriac: ܐܘܢܓܠܝܘܢ /ʔɛwwanɡallijon/; Koine Greek: εὐαγγέλιον, meaning "good news" or "gospel"). Excerpts from its initial chapter were recorded in Arabic by ibn al-Nadim, who resided in Baghdad during a period when Manichaeans were still present in the city. These quotations appear in his 938 work, the Fihrist, which functioned as a comprehensive catalog of all books known to him.
• The Treasure of Life
• The Treatise (Coptic: πραγματεία, pragmateia)
• Secrets
• The Book of Giants: Original fragments of this text have been unearthed at Qumran (dating to the pre-Manichaean period) and Turpan.
• Epistles: Augustine includes Latin quotations from Mani's Fundamental Epistle within several of his anti-Manichaean treatises.
• Psalms and Prayers: A Coptic Manichaean Psalm Book, unearthed in Egypt during the early 20th century, was subsequently edited and published by Charles Allberry between 1938 and 1939. This publication drew upon Manichaean manuscripts housed in both the Chester Beatty collection and the Berlin Academy.

Works Originally Composed in Middle Persian

• The Shabuhragan, a text dedicated to Shapur I: Original fragments in Middle Persian were discovered at Turpan, while al-Biruni preserved quotations from it in Arabic.

Additional Texts

• The Ardahang, also known as the "Picture Book." Within Iranian tradition, this work is recognized as one of Mani's sacred texts, remembered throughout later Persian history. It was also referred to as Aržang, a Parthian term signifying "Worthy," and was renowned for its illustrative paintings. Consequently, Mani was accorded the epithet "The Painter" by Iranians.
• The Kephalaia of the Teacher (Κεφαλαια), translated as "Discourses," is extant in Coptic.
• On the Origin of His Body, which is the title of the Cologne Mani-Codex, represents a Greek translation of an Aramaic text detailing Mani's early life.

Non-Manichaean Works Preserved by the Manichaean Church

• Sections of the Book of Enoch literature, including the Book of Giants.
• Literature pertaining to the apostle Thomas, who is traditionally believed to have traveled to India and was venerated in Syria, includes segments of the Syriac *The Acts of Thomas* and *The Psalms of Thomas*. Furthermore, Cyril of Jerusalem, a fourth-century Church Father, attributed *The Gospel of Thomas* to Manichaeans.
• The narrative of Barlaam and Josaphat originated as an Indian tale concerning the Buddha, subsequently evolving through a Manichaean rendition before its final transformation into the story of a Christian Saint in Western traditions.

Subsequent Works

As Manichaeism expanded into eastern Persian-speaking territories and subsequently reached the Uyghur Khaganate (回鶻帝國), culminating in its presence within the Uyghur kingdom of Turpan (which was destroyed circa 1335), Middle Persian and Parthian prayers (āfrīwan or āfurišn) and the Parthian hymn-cycles (specifically the Huwīdagmān and Angad Rōšnan, attributed to Mar Ammo) were incorporated into the Manichaean textual corpus. A compilation of these texts was later translated, resulting in the creation of the Manichaean Chinese Hymnscroll (Chinese: 摩尼教下部讚; pinyin: Móní-jiào Xiàbù Zàn), which Lieu interprets as "Hymns for the Lower Section [i.e. the Hearers] of the Manichaean Religion."

Beyond hymns ascribed to Mani himself, this collection also features prayers attributed to his initial disciples, such as Mār Zaku, Mār Ammo, and Mār Sīsin. Furthermore, a distinct Chinese text comprises a full translation of the Sermon of the Light Nous, structured as a dialogue between Mani and his disciple Adda.

Critical and Polemical Sources

Prior to the discovery of original Manichaean texts in the 20th century, scholarly understanding of Manichaeism was exclusively derived from descriptions and direct quotations found in the writings of non-Manichaean authors, encompassing Christian, Muslim, Buddhist, and Zoroastrian perspectives. Despite frequently adopting a critical stance toward Manichaeism, these authors often preserved direct excerpts from Manichaean scriptures. This circumstance allowed Isaac de Beausobre, in the 18th century, to compile an extensive study of Manichaeism based entirely on anti-Manichaean sources. Consequently, scholarly access to Greek and Arabic quotations and descriptions, as well as extensive Latin quotations by Saint Augustine and a notably significant Syriac quotation by Theodore Bar Konai, has been long-standing.

Patristic Depictions of Mani and Manichaeism

Eusebius offered the following commentary:

The error of the Manichees, which commenced at this time.

Acta Archelai

The potential for inaccuracy within some historical accounts is exemplified by the narrative concerning the origins of Manichaeism presented in the Acta Archelai. This Greek anti-Manichaean treatise, composed prior to 348 CE and predominantly recognized through its Latin rendition, was historically considered a reliable depiction of Manichaeism until its refutation by Isaac de Beausobre in the 18th century.

In the time of the Apostles there lived a man named Scythianus, who is described as coming "from Scythia", and also as being "a Saracen by race" ("ex genere Saracenorum"). He settled in Egypt, where he became acquainted with "the wisdom of the Egyptians", and invented the religious system that was afterwards known as Manichaeism. Finally he emigrated to Palestine, and, when he died, his writings passed into the hands of his sole disciple, a certain Terebinthus. The latter betook himself to Babylonia, assumed the name of Budda, and endeavoured to propagate his master's teaching. But he, like Scythianus, gained only one disciple, who was an old woman. After a while he died, in consequence of a fall from the roof of a house, and the books that he had inherited from Scythianus became the property of the old woman, who, on her death, bequeathed them to a young man named Corbicius, who had been her slave. Corbicius thereupon changed his name to Manes, studied the writings of Scythianus, and began to teach the doctrines that they contained, with many additions of his own. He gained three disciples, named Thomas, Addas, and Hermas. About this time the son of the Persian king fell ill, and Manes undertook to cure him; the prince, however, died, whereupon Manes was thrown into prison. He succeeded in escaping, but eventually fell into the hands of the king, by whose order he was flayed, and his corpse was hung up at the city gate.

A. A. Bevan, who cited this narrative, remarked that it "has no claim to be considered historical."

The Portrayal of Judaism in the Acta Archelai

Hegemonius' depiction of Mani posits that the malevolent demiurge responsible for the world's creation was the Jewish Yahweh. Hegemonius further records Mani's assertion that:

The text asserts that

the Prince of Darkness communicated with Moses, the Jews, and their priests, thereby implicating Christians, Jews, and Pagans in a shared theological error through their worship of this deity. This entity, identified as the archon of Darkness, is depicted as misleading them through their desires, as it does not represent the god of truth. Consequently, all individuals who place their faith in the god who interacted with Moses and the prophets are destined for subjugation alongside him, having failed to repose their trust in the true deity, who engaged with them solely in accordance with their own aspirations.

Primary Sources from Central Asia and Iran

In the early 20th century, original Manichaean texts began to emerge following excavations led by German scholars Albert Grünwedel and subsequently Albert von Le Coq at Gaochang, the ancient capital of the Manichaean Uyghur Kingdom near Turpan in Chinese Turkestan, a site destroyed around 1300 CE. Although many of the recovered writings were in a deteriorated state, hundreds of pages of Manichaean scriptures, composed in three Iranian languages (Middle Persian, Parthian, and Sogdian) and Old Uyghur, were preserved. These documents were transported to Germany for analysis and publication at the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin by Le Coq and other researchers, including Friedrich W. K. Müller and Walter Bruno Henning. While the vast majority of these texts were written in a variant of the Syriac script known as Manichaean script, the German scholars, possibly due to the unavailability of appropriate fonts, primarily published them using the Hebrew alphabet, which could readily substitute the 22 Syriac letters.

Among these publications, Manichaeische Dogmatik aus chinesischen und iranischen Texten (Manichaean Dogma from Chinese and Iranian texts), authored by Ernst Waldschmidt and Wolfgang Lentz and published in Berlin in 1933, stands out as particularly comprehensive. This work, more than any other research before or since, presented and subsequently analyzed original key Manichaean texts in their native scripts. It primarily comprises sections from Chinese texts, alongside Middle Persian and Parthian texts transcribed using the Hebrew alphabet. Following the Nazi Party's ascent to power in Germany, the publication of Manichaean writings persisted throughout the 1930s; however, publishers ceased using Hebrew letters, opting instead for transliteration into Latin script.

Coptic Primary Sources

Additionally, in 1930, German researchers in Egypt discovered a substantial collection of Manichaean works written in Coptic. Although these documents were also damaged, hundreds of complete pages survived and were subsequently analyzed and published in Berlin starting in 1933, prior to World War II, by German scholars such as Hans Jakob Polotsky. Some of these Coptic Manichaean writings were unfortunately lost during the war.

Chinese Primary Sources

Following the success of the German researchers, French scholars visited China and uncovered what is arguably the most complete collection of Manichaean writings, composed in Chinese. These three Chinese texts, all discovered at the Mogao Caves among the Dunhuang manuscripts and all dating before the 9th century, are currently preserved in London, Paris, and Beijing. Scholars involved in their initial discovery and publication included Édouard Chavannes, Paul Pelliot, and Aurel Stein. The original studies, analyses, and translations of these writings first appeared in French, English, and German, both before and after World War II. The complete Chinese texts themselves were initially published in Tokyo, Japan, in 1927, within volume 54 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka. While they have been republished in both Germany (with a complete German translation alongside the 1927 Japanese edition) and China over the last three decades, the Japanese publication remains the authoritative reference for the Chinese texts.

The Greek Life of Mani, Cologne Codex

A small codex, discovered in Egypt, gained recognition through antique dealers in Cairo. The University of Cologne acquired it in 1969. Subsequently, two of its scholars, Henrichs and Koenen, produced the initial edition, now recognized as the Cologne Mani-Codex, which appeared in four articles within the Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. This ancient papyrus manuscript contained a Greek text detailing Mani's life. This discovery significantly enhanced understanding of Mani, the founder of one of history's most influential world religions.

Figurative Use

The terms "Manichaean" and "Manichaeism" are occasionally employed metaphorically as a substitute for the broader concept of "dualist" when referring to a particular philosophy, perspective, or worldview. These terms frequently imply that the worldview under consideration oversimplifies historical occurrences into a binary conflict between good and evil. For instance, Zbigniew Brzezinski characterized U.S. President George W. Bush's worldview as "Manichaean paranoia" during an appearance on The Daily Show with Jon Stewart on March 14, 2007; Brzezinski clarified that this referred to "the notion that he [Bush] is leading the forces of good against the 'Axis of evil.'" Author and journalist Glenn Greenwald further explored this theme in his 2007 book, A Tragic Legacy, when describing Bush.

Critics commonly apply this term to characterize the perspectives and foreign policies of the United States and its leadership.

Philosopher Frantz Fanon often referenced the concept of Manichaeanism in his analyses of violence occurring between colonizers and the colonized.

In Paul Theroux's novel, My Secret History, the protagonist defines "Manichaean" for his son as "seeing that good and evil are mingled." Prior to this explanation, the protagonist references Joseph Conrad's short story "The Secret Sharer" on at least two occasions within the book, a narrative that similarly explores the duality of good and evil.

Notes

Works cited

Baker-Brian, Nicholas J. (2011). Manichaeism: An Ancient Faith Rediscovered. London and New York: T&T Clark.

• Baker-Brian, Nicholas J. (2011). Manichaeism: An Ancient Faith Rediscovered. London and New York. T&T Clark.
• Beatty, Alfred Chester (1938). Allberry, Charles (ed.). A Manichean Psalm-Book, Part II. Stuttgart.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
• Cross, F. L.; Livingstone, E. A. (1974). The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-211545-4.Favre, Francois (2005, May 5). Mani, the Gift of Light. Paper presented at the Renova symposium, Bilthoven, The Netherlands.Foltz, Richard (2013). Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present. London: Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1-78074-308-0.Gardner, Iain (2020). The Founder of Manichaeism: Rethinking the Lives of Mani. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Giversen, Soren (1988). The Manichaean Coptic Papyri in The Chester Beatty Library Vol. III: Psalm Book Part I (Facsimile ed.). Geneva: Patrick Crammer.Giversen, Soren (1988). The Manichaean Coptic Papyri in The Chester Beatty Library Vol. IV: Psalm Book Part II (Facsimile ed.). Geneva: Patrick Crammer.Gulácsi, Zsuzsanna (2001). Manichaean Art in Berlin Collections. Turnhout.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) (Original Manichaean manuscripts discovered since 1902 in China, Egypt, and Turkestan are exhibited in the Museum of Indian Art in Berlin.)
• Heinrichs, Albert, and Ludwig Koenen. (1970). Ein griechischer Mani-Kodex. (Eds.). Der Kölner Mani-Codex (P. Colon. Inv. nr. 4780), 1975–1982.
• Ibscher, Hugo (1938). Edited by Allberry, Charles R. C. Manichaean Manuscripts in the Chester Beatty Collection: Vol. II, Part II: A Manichaean Psalm Book. Stuttgart: W. Kohlammer.Legge, Francis (1964) [1914]. Forerunners and Rivals of Christianity, From 330 B.C. to 330 A.D.. New York: University Books. LC Catalog 64-24125.Melchert, Norman (2002). The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy. McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-19-517510-3.Skjaervo, Prods Oktor (2006). An Introduction to Manicheism.Wurst, Gregor (July 2001). "Die Bema-Psalmen". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 60 (3): 203–204. doi:10.1086/468925.

  Outside articles

  • The Catholic Encyclopedia contains an entry on Manichæism, which is in the public domain and was published in 1917.
  • International Association of Manichaean Studies.
  • Manichaean and Christian Remains in Zayton (Quanzhou, South China).
  • Religions of Iran: Manichaeism, by I.J.S. Taraporewala.
  • Special Research: Manichaeism Studies.
  • The Bright Emperor: Background Book of the Religion of Light (Part 1).

  Manichaean Sources Available in English Translation.

  • A summary of the Manichaean creation myth.
  • Manichaean Writings.
  • Manichaeism: A comprehensive bibliography and outline of Manichaean studies, including a selection of Manichaean source texts in PDF format.
  • A collection of key Manichaean texts in English translation.
• The Book of the Giants, by W.B. Henning, 1943.
• The Nag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies (NHMS) series from Brill, comprising various volumes that include English translations of Manichaean texts.

Secondary Manichaean Sources Available in English Translation.

• Saint Augustine's work, *Against the Fundamental Epistle of Manichaeus*.
• *Acta Archelai*.

Manichaean Sources in Their Original Languages.

• Photographs of the complete Koeln Mani-Kodex (Greek).
• The Syriac Manichaean work cited by Theodor bar Khonai.
• Photographs of the original Middle Persian Manichaean writings and fragments discovered at Turpan, alongside additional Manichaean material, including images of the original Chinese Manichaean writings.
• "Sermon of the Soul," presented in Parthian and Sogdian.
• Middle Persian and Parthian Texts.
• MacKenzie, D. N. Mani's Šābuhragān, Part 1 (text and translation), *Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies* 42/3, 1979, pp. 500–34,[1] and Part 2 (glossary and plates), *Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies* 43/2, 1980, pp. 288–310 [2].
• Chinese Manichaean Scriptures include: 摩尼教殘經一 ("Incomplete Sutra One of Manichaeism"), and 摩尼光佛教法儀略 ("The Mani Bright Buddha Teaching Plan"), and 下部讚 ("The Lower Part Praises").

Secondary Manichaean Sources in Their Original Languages.

• Augustine's *Contra Epistolam Manichaei* (Latin).