Neoplatonism

Neoplatonism, alternatively known as late Platonism,, represents a distinct branch of Platonic philosophy that arose in the 3rd century AD, influenced by the prevailing Hellenistic philosophical and religious landscape. Rather than denoting a singular, rigid set of doctrines derived from Platonism, the term primarily refers to a succession of Platonic philosophers active during a specific ancient historical era. A central tenet of Neoplatonism is monism, the philosophical assertion that all existence originates from and can be traced back to a singular, ultimate principle, identified as "the One."

The emergence of Neoplatonism is attributed to Ammonius Saccas and his disciple Plotinus (c. AD 205 – 271), with its influence extending into the sixth century. Following Plotinus, the historical trajectory of Neoplatonism can be delineated into three principal phases: the contributions of his student Porphyry (spanning the third to early fourth century); the philosophical developments introduced by Iamblichus (active from the third to fourth century); and the later era of the fifth and sixth centuries, characterized by the flourishing of academic centers in Alexandria and Athens.

Neoplatonism exerted a profound and lasting impact on the subsequent development of Western philosophy and religious thought. During the medieval period, its concepts were extensively examined and debated by prominent Christian, Jewish, and Muslim intellectuals. Within the Islamic cultural domain, Neoplatonic treatises were accessible through Arabic and Persian translations, leading distinguished philosophers such as al-Farabi, Solomon ibn Gabirol (Avicebron), Avicenna (Ibn Sina), and Maimonides to integrate Neoplatonic principles into their respective philosophical systems.

The Christian philosopher and theologian Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) directly engaged with the writings of Proclus, Simplicius of Cilicia, and Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, while also acquiring knowledge of other Neoplatonists, including Plotinus and Porphyry, via secondary accounts. The German mystic Meister Eckhart (c. 1260 – c. 1328) similarly drew inspiration from Neoplatonism, advocating a contemplative existence that sought to apprehend the Godhead beyond conventional theological appellations. Furthermore, Neoplatonism significantly shaped the perennial philosophy espoused by Italian Renaissance intellectuals Marsilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, and its legacy persists within 19th-century Universalism and contemporary spirituality.

Etymology and Historical Context of the Term

The designation Neoplatonism is a contemporary appellation. As a historical classification, the term Neoplatonism serves a dual purpose: it distinguishes the philosophical tenets advanced by Plotinus and his successors from those attributed to the historical Plato, while simultaneously presuming a significant originality in Plotinus's interpretation of Platonic thought. Over the span of nearly six centuries, from Plato's era to Plotinus's, an unbroken lineage of Platonic exegesis existed, commencing with Aristotle and the direct inheritors of Plato's Academy, and progressing through a phase of Platonism now identified as Middle Platonism. The nomenclature Neoplatonism thus suggests that Plotinus's understanding of Plato was sufficiently divergent from earlier interpretations to inaugurate a novel epoch in Platonic intellectual history. Nevertheless, some contemporary academics question the efficacy of Neoplatonism as a descriptive label, contending that Plotinus's doctrines exhibit only minor distinctions from those of his immediate forerunners. As a student of the philosopher Ammonius Saccas, Plotinus synthesized the insights of his mentor and predecessors to inform and inspire subsequent generations.

The conceptual validity and utility of Neoplatonism as a historical category constitutes a fundamental inquiry within the broader study of Platonic interpretation. Historically, a significant portion of Platonic scholarship presumed an essential congruence between Neoplatonic doctrines and Plato's original philosophy. For example, the Renaissance Neoplatonist Marsilio Ficino considered the Neoplatonic exegesis of Plato to be an authentic and precise articulation of Plato's philosophical system. While the exact genesis of scholarly efforts to distinguish the historical Plato's philosophy from that of his Neoplatonic commentators remains ambiguous, such differentiation demonstrably commenced by the early nineteenth century. Modern academics frequently credit the German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher as an influential early proponent of separating Plato's philosophical contributions from those of his Neoplatonic successors. Conversely, some scholars contend that the separation of Plato from Neoplatonism emerged from a prolonged historical evolution predating Schleiermacher's academic contributions concerning Plato.

The Genesis and Historical Development of Classical Neoplatonism

Neoplatonism originated with Plotinus during the 3rd century CE. Subsequent to Plotinus, classical Neoplatonism can be delineated into three distinct periods: these include the contributions of his student Porphyry; the philosophical tradition established by Iamblichus and his Syrian school; and the flourishing of the Academies in Alexandria and Athens during the 5th and 6th centuries.

Hellenistic Context

Neoplatonism emerged from a synthesis of concepts drawn from diverse philosophical and religious traditions. Key precursors within Greek philosophy included Middle Platonists, such as Plutarch, and Neopythagoreans, notably Numenius of Apamea. Philo, a Hellenized Jewish philosopher, reinterpreted Judaism through Stoic, Platonic, and Neopythagorean frameworks, positing that God is "supra-rational" and accessible solely via "ecstasy." He further maintained that divine oracles provide the foundational content for moral and religious understanding. Early Christian philosophers, including Justin Martyr and Athenagoras of Athens, who sought to integrate Christianity with Platonism, alongside Alexandrian Christian Gnostics like Valentinus and the adherents of Basilides, similarly reflected Neoplatonic principles.

Ammonius Saccas

Ammonius Saccas (c. AD 240–245) served as Plotinus's instructor. It is posited that Plotinus may have assimilated Indian philosophical concepts through Ammonius Saccas. The discernible parallels between Neoplatonism and Indian philosophy, notably Samkhya, have prompted various scholars to propose an Indian foundational influence, specifically impacting Ammonius Saccas. Porphyry, in his work On the One School of Plato and Aristotle, recorded Ammonius's perspective that the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle were fundamentally congruent.

Both Christian and pagan traditions claimed Ammonius Saccas as a teacher and an adherent of their respective faiths. Eusebius and Jerome documented Ammonius's adherence to Christianity until his demise, while Porphyry contended that he had repudiated Christianity in favor of pagan philosophy.

Plotinus

Plotinus (c. 205 – 270 CE) is broadly recognized as the progenitor of Neoplatonism. A substantial portion of biographical data concerning Plotinus is derived from Porphyry's preface to his compilation of Plotinus's Enneads. Although he assimilated influences from classical Greek, Persian, and Indian philosophies, as well as Egyptian theology, his subsequent metaphysical treatises profoundly impacted numerous Pagan, Jewish, Christian, Gnostic, and Islamic metaphysicians and mystics across successive centuries.

Plotinus posited the existence of a supreme, utterly transcendent "One," characterized by an absence of division, multiplicity, or distinction, and thus transcending all categories of being and non-being. The notion of "being" originates from human experiential objects and constitutes an attribute of these objects; however, the infinite, transcendent One surpasses all such objects and, consequently, lies beyond any concepts derivable from them. The One "cannot be any existing thing" nor merely the aggregate of all existing things (compare the Stoic doctrine of disbelief in non-material existence), but rather "is prior to all existents."

Porphyry

Porphyry (c. 233 – c. 309) was a prolific writer, contributing extensively to astrology, religion, philosophy, and musical theory. He composed a biography of his teacher, Plotinus, and holds significance in the history of mathematics for his commentary on Euclid's Elements, which Pappus later referenced in his own work. Porphyry is additionally known for his opposition to Christianity and his defense of paganism; only fragments remain of his 15-volume work, Adversus Christianos (Against the Christians). He is famously quoted as asserting, "The gods have proclaimed Christ to have been most pious, but the Christians are a confused and vicious sect."^{[citation needed]}

Iamblichus

Iamblichus (c. 245 – c. 325) profoundly influenced the subsequent development of Neoplatonic philosophy. He is primarily recognized for his compendium The Life of Pythagoras, his commentary on Pythagorean philosophy, and his work De Mysteriis. Within Iamblichus' system, the divine hierarchy extended from the original One to material nature, where the soul descended into matter and became embodied as human beings. This perspective posits a world populated by numerous superhuman entities that influence natural events, possess and communicate prescient knowledge, and are accessible through prayers and offerings. Iamblichus identified salvation as the ultimate goal, proposing that the embodied soul could return to divinity by performing specific rites, or theurgy, literally meaning 'divine-working'.

Academies

Following Plotinus (c. 205 – c. 270) and his student Porphyry (c. 232 – c. 309), Aristotle's non-biological treatises were incorporated into the Platonic philosophical curriculum. Porphyry's Isagoge, an introduction to Aristotle's Categoria, proved crucial for the study of logic, and consequently, Aristotelian studies became a preparatory step for Platonic philosophy in the late Platonism of Athens and Alexandria. Commentaries from this era frequently sought to harmonize the doctrines of Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics. Some Neoplatonic works were directly attributed to Plato or Aristotle; for instance, De Mundo is often considered the product of a 'pseudo-Aristotle,' though this attribution remains contentious.

Hypatia

Hypatia (c. 360 – 415) was a distinguished Greek philosopher and mathematician who presided over the Platonist school in Alexandria, Egypt, instructing students in philosophy, mathematics, and astronomy. She was tragically murdered in a church by a fanatical mob of Coptic Parabalani monks, reportedly for advising Orestes, the prefect of Egypt, during his dispute with Cyril, Alexandria's powerful archbishop. The extent of Cyril's direct involvement in her assassination remains a topic of scholarly debate.

Proclus

Proclus Lycaeus (February 8, 412 – April 17, 485) was a Greek Neoplatonist and one of the last prominent Greek philosophers. He formulated one of the most elaborate, complex, and fully developed Neoplatonic systems, also providing an allegorical approach to interpreting Plato's dialogues. A distinctive characteristic of Proclus' system is the insertion of a level of individual unities, designated as henads, situated between the ultimate One and the divine Intellect, which serves as the second principle. These henads exist beyond being, mirroring the One itself, but they initiate chains of causation (seirai or taxeis) and, in some manner, confer their particular attributes upon these chains. They are also identified with the traditional Greek gods; thus, one henad might embody Apollo and be the source of all Apollonian aspects, while another could represent Helios and be the origin of all solar phenomena. The henads serve both to protect the One from any suggestion of multiplicity and to draw the rest of the universe towards the One, functioning as a connecting, intermediate stage between absolute unity and determinate multiplicity. In the Middle Ages, many of Plotinus' insights were presented as authored by Proclus.

Ideas

The Enneads of Plotinus represent the foundational text of Neoplatonism. This mystical treatise comprises both theoretical and practical components; the theoretical sections explore the elevated genesis of the human soul and its deviation from its primordial state, while the practical sections delineate the path for the soul's re-ascension to the Eternal and Supreme. Plotinus's philosophical system delineates a division between the intelligible and phenomenal realms. The intelligible realm encompasses the transcendent, absolute One, from which an eternal, perfect essence (nous, or intellect) emanates, subsequently generating the world-soul.

The One

Plotinus posited "the One" as the ultimate principle of reality. This entity is characterized as utterly simple, ineffable, transcending both being and non-being, and an unknowable subsistence that functions as both the creative origin of the universe and the teleological culmination of all existence. While no appellation is truly fitting for this primary principle, "the One" or "the Good" are considered the most appropriate designations. Its absolute simplicity precludes its categorization as an existent entity or a being. Instead, this creative principle of all things is posited as beyond being, a concept originating from Book VI of Plato's Republic, where, within the renowned analogy of the Sun, Plato asserts that the Good surpasses being (ἐπέκεινα τῆς οὐσίας) in both power and dignity. Within Plotinus's metaphysical framework, the One serves as the causal origin for the remainder of reality, manifesting as two subsequent hypostases or substances: Nous and Soul (psyché). While subsequent Neoplatonists generally adopted Plotinus's cosmological framework, later advancements within the tradition diverged significantly from his doctrines concerning crucial philosophical matters, including the nature of evil.

Emanations

From the One, various levels of subordinate realities, termed "hypostases," emanate. At the apex of reality resides "the One," from which the Nous, or intellect, emanates. This represents the initial principle subsequent to the One, encompassing all knowledge in a unified state. The Nous functions as both the subject and object of cognition, as well as the act of knowing itself, thereby embodying perfect unity. The Platonic realm of Forms is immanent within the Nous, serving as the archetype for the sensible world. Subsequently, a subordinate reality, the Soul, emanates from the Nous, receiving and actualizing its information. This process of actualization corresponds to the generation of the sensible world, a domain characterized by multiplicity, temporality, and spatiality. The sensible realm constitutes an imperfect replication of the Nous and the Platonic Forms. The emanation process transcends temporality, as time is absent in the One, the Nous, and the Soul, existing solely within the sensible world. Notwithstanding their distinct characteristics, these four realities collectively form a singular, unified reality that unfolds from within the One.

Demiurge or nous

The primordial Being initially emanates, or projects, the nous (νοῦς), which serves as a perfect reflection of the One and the archetypal model for all existent entities. It concurrently embodies both being and thought, representing both an idea and the ideal world. While the nous, as an image, perfectly corresponds to the One, its derivative nature renders it fundamentally distinct. Plotinus conceived of the nous as the supreme sphere attainable by human intellect, simultaneously representing pure intellect itself. The Nous constitutes a pivotal element of idealism, with Neoplatonism exemplifying a pure manifestation of this philosophical tradition. The demiurge (identified with the nous) functions as the energy, or ergon (the active principle), responsible for manifesting or organizing the material world into a perceptible form.

World-soul

The world-soul, which Plotinus describes as similarly immaterial, is conceptualized as the emanation or product of the static nous. Its relationship to the nous mirrors the relationship of the nous to the One. Positioned between the nous and the phenomenal realm, the world-soul is both permeated and illuminated by the former, while simultaneously engaging with the latter. While the nous (or spirit) is indivisible, the world-soul possesses the capacity to maintain its unity within the nous or, conversely, to integrate with the corporeal world, leading to its disintegration. Consequently, it occupies an intermediary ontological status. Although intrinsically belonging to the intelligible world in its essence and purpose as a singular entity, the world-soul also encompasses countless individual souls. These individual souls have the choice to either be guided by the nous or to diverge from the nous, opting for the phenomenal world and becoming absorbed in sensory experience and finitude.

The Phenomenal World

The soul, conceived as a dynamic essence, is responsible for the generation of the corporeal, or phenomenal, world. Ideally, this world should be so thoroughly permeated by the soul that its constituent elements maintain perfect harmony. Plotinus diverges from dualistic perspectives, such as those held by certain Gnostic sects; instead, he expresses admiration for the world's inherent beauty and splendor. When form governs matter, or the soul directs the body, the world manifests as inherently good and beautiful. It functions as an image—albeit a faint one—of the higher intelligible realm, where varying degrees of perfection are integral to the overall cosmic harmony. However, within the empirical phenomenal world, unity and harmony are frequently supplanted by discord and conflict, leading to a state of perpetual flux, characterized by generation, decay, and an ultimately illusory existence. This condition arises because physical bodies are grounded in a material substratum. Matter itself is defined as indeterminate, lacking inherent qualities. When devoid of form and idea, it is considered evil; conversely, its capacity to receive form renders it neutral. In this context, evil is conceptualized as a parasitic entity, possessing no independent existence (parahypostasis), and is viewed as an unavoidable, "other" necessity within the Universe, paradoxically functioning as a harmonizing element.

The Celestial Hierarchy

Subsequent Neoplatonic thinkers, notably Iamblichus, introduced a vast array of intermediate entities—including gods, angels, and demons—to serve as intermediaries between the One and humanity. These Neoplatonic deities are characterized as omni-perfect beings, distinct from the often amoral portrayals found in traditional mythological narratives.

• The One: Identified as God or The Good, this entity is described as transcendent and ineffable.
• The Hypercosmic Gods: These deities are responsible for the creation of Essence, Life, and Soul.
• The Demiurge: The divine creator.
• The Cosmic Gods: These entities are responsible for the formation of Being, Nature, and Matter, encompassing the deities recognized in classical religious traditions.

Evil

Neoplatonic philosophy rejects the notion of evil as an independently existing entity. Instead, evil is analogized to darkness, which possesses no intrinsic existence but is merely the privation of light. Consequently, evil is understood as the absence or deficiency of good. Entities are considered good to the extent of their existence; they are deemed evil only when they are imperfect, lacking a good that they inherently ought to possess.

The Return to the One

Neoplatonic thought posited that human perfection and eudaimonia (happiness) were achievable within the present life, rather than being contingent upon an afterlife. These two states, considered synonymous, were attainable through rigorous philosophical contemplation.

Ultimately, all beings are destined to return to the One, their ultimate source of emanation.

The Neoplatonists posited the pre-existence and immortality of the soul. They conceived the human soul as comprising both a lower, irrational component and a higher, rational intellect (mind), viewing these as distinct faculties of a singular soul. A prevalent belief was that the soul possessed a "vehicle" (okhêma), which explained its immortality and facilitated its post-mortem return to the One. Following physical demise, the soul was thought to ascend to an afterlife stratum commensurate with its conduct during earthly existence. The doctrine of reincarnation was central to Neoplatonic thought. While the most virtuous and pure souls were destined for the highest realms, impure souls were believed to undergo a purgation process before descending for reincarnation into a new corporeal form, potentially even an animal. Plotinus theorized that a soul could be reincarnated into another human or various animal species. Conversely, Porphyry asserted that human souls exclusively reincarnated into other human beings. A soul that successfully rejoined the One achieved a state of unity with the cosmic universal soul, thereby precluding further descent, at least within the current cosmic epoch.

Influence

Early Christianity

Augustine

Key principles of Neoplatonism provided a crucial philosophical bridge for the Christian theologian Augustine of Hippo during his transition from dualistic Manichaeism to Christianity. As a Manichaean, Augustine had previously maintained that evil possessed substantial existence and that God was composed of matter; his adoption of Neoplatonism prompted a revision of these perspectives. Both as a Neoplatonist and subsequently as a Christian, Augustine posited that evil constituted a privation of good and that God was immaterial. Even years after his baptism in AD 387, when composing his treatise 'On True Religion', Augustine's Christian theology remained significantly influenced by Neoplatonic thought.

Within Neoplatonism, the term logos received diverse interpretations. Plotinus, referencing Thales, understood logos as the mediating principle, representing the intrinsic connection among the hypostases of Soul, Spirit (nous), and the One. In contrast, St. John established a link between Logos and the Son, Christ, while Paul referred to it as 'Son', 'Image', and 'Form'. Victorinus later distinguished between the Logos inherent within God and the Logos manifested in the world through creation and salvation. Augustine believed the Logos 'assumed flesh' in Christ, asserting that the Logos was uniquely present in him compared to any other individual. This perspective profoundly shaped early medieval Christian philosophy.

Origen and Pseudo-Dionysius

Influenced by Neoplatonism, certain early Christians equated the Neoplatonic concept of the One, or God, with the Christian deity. Among the most significant figures in this regard were Origen, a disciple of Ammonius Saccas, and the sixth-century writer known as Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, whose writings were translated for the Latin-speaking West by John Scotus in the ninth century. Both authors exerted profound and enduring influence on Eastern Orthodox and Western Christianity, contributing significantly to the evolution of contemplative and mystical practices and theological thought. However, Origen was eventually condemned as a heretic at the Fifth Ecumenical Council (Second Council of Constantinople), though modern Western scholars debate whether the condemnation targeted Origen himself or merely Origenism.

Gnosticism

Neoplatonism also maintained connections with Gnosticism, a relationship notably characterized by Plotinus's critique in the ninth tractate of the second Enneads, titled 'Against Those That Affirm The Creator of The Cosmos and The Cosmos Itself to Be Evil' (commonly referred to as 'Against The Gnostics').

Grounded in Platonic philosophy, Neoplatonists repudiated the Gnostic denigration of Plato's demiurge, the creator of the material cosmos, as delineated in the Timaeus. Scholars such as John D. Turner have characterized Neoplatonism as "orthodox Platonic philosophy," a designation potentially stemming from Plotinus's efforts to counter specific interpretations of Platonic thought within his Enneads. Plotinus contended that Gnostic adherents had distorted Plato's original doctrines, frequently disputing figures like Valentinus, whom Plotinus accused of fostering dogmatic theological tenets, including the notion that the Spirit of Christ emerged from a conscious deity subsequent to the Pleroma's fall. Plotinus posited that the One is neither a conscious, intentional deity, nor a godhead, nor any form of conditioned existing entity; rather, it constitutes a fundamental principle of totality and the fount of ultimate wisdom.

Byzantine Education

Following the destruction of the Platonic Academy in the first century BC, philosophical instruction in Platonism persisted. However, it was not until the early 5th century (c. 410) that a revitalized academy, distinct from the original institution, was established in Athens by prominent Neoplatonists. This academy operated until AD 529, when Emperor Justinian I ordered its closure due to the active paganism practiced by its faculty. Other philosophical schools continued to thrive in key centers of Justinian's empire, including Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, and Gaza.

Subsequent to the closure of the Neoplatonic academy, Neoplatonic and secular philosophical studies endured in publicly funded institutions located in Alexandria and Gaza. In the early seventh century, Stephanus of Alexandria, a Neoplatonist, introduced this Alexandrian intellectual tradition to Constantinople, where it maintained influence primarily as a form of secular education. The university there sustained a vigorous philosophical tradition encompassing both Platonism and Aristotelianism, with the Platonic school notably representing the longest continuous lineage, extending for nearly two millennia until the fifteenth century.

Michael Psellos (1018–1078), a Byzantine monk, author, philosopher, politician, and historian, authored numerous philosophical treatises, including De omnifaria doctrina. He composed the majority of his philosophical works during his tenure as a court politician in Constantinople throughout the 1030s and 1040s.

Gemistos Plethon (c. 1355 – 1452; Greek: Πλήθων Γεμιστός) was the foremost scholar of Neoplatonic philosophy in the late Byzantine Empire. He presented his interpretations and insights into Neoplatonic texts during the unsuccessful attempt to reconcile the East–West Schism at the Council of Florence. In Florence, Plethon encountered Cosimo de' Medici, influencing the latter's decision to establish a new Platonic Academy there. Cosimo subsequently appointed Marsilio Ficino as its head, who then undertook the translation of all of Plato's works, Plotinus's Enneads, and various other Neoplatonic texts into Latin.

Islamic Neoplatonism

The significant presence of Neoplatonic influences within the historical Muslim world was primarily attributable to the availability of Neoplatonic texts. Arabic translations and paraphrases of these works were readily accessible to Islamic scholars, largely due to the abundance of Greek manuscripts, partly a consequence of Muslim conquests of important Byzantine Christian centers in Egypt and Syria.

Various Turkish, Persian, and Arabic scholars, including Avicenna (Ibn Sina), Ibn Arabi, al-Kindi, al-Farabi, and al-Himsi, adapted Neoplatonism to align with the monotheistic tenets of Islam. Translations of works explicating the Neoplatonic understanding of God exhibited no substantial alterations from their original Greek sources, indicating a doctrinal convergence towards monotheism. Islamic Neoplatonism integrated the concepts of the One and the First Principle into Islamic theology, attributing the First Principle to God. In this framework, God is conceived as a transcendent, omnipresent being, immutable by the effects of creation. Islamic philosophers frequently employed the conceptual framework of Islamic mysticism in their interpretations of Neoplatonic writings and ideas.

Jewish Thought

Neoplatonic concepts significantly influenced Jewish thinkers during the Middle Ages, including Kabbalists like Isaac the Blind, Azriel of Gerona, and Nachmanides. The earlier Jewish Neoplatonic philosopher Solomon ibn Gabirol (Avicebron) also adapted these ideas to align with monotheistic principles.

Medieval Christian Thought

The works of Pseudo-Dionysius were instrumental in the flourishing of Western medieval mysticism, most notably impacting the German mystic Meister Eckhart (c. 1260 – c. 1328).

Neoplatonism also impacted Latin scholasticism, notably through Eriugena's reception and translation of Neoplatonic concepts. For instance, Aquinas incorporated certain Neoplatonic elements into his philosophical framework, adapting them within an Aristotelian vocabulary.

Western Renaissance

Neoplatonism seemingly persisted as an independent tradition within the Eastern Christian Church and was subsequently reintroduced to the West by Pletho (c. 1355 – 1452 or 1454). Pletho, an acknowledged pagan and critic of the Byzantine Church—which, influenced by Western scholasticism, heavily favored Aristotelian methodology—spearheaded a Platonic revival after the Council of Florence (1438–1439), significantly contributing to the renewed interest in Platonic philosophy during the Renaissance.

According to Hole, "Of all the students of Greek in Renaissance Italy, the best-known are the Neoplatonists who studied in and around Florence." Neoplatonism represented more than a mere resurgence of Plato's ideas; it was fundamentally rooted in Plotinus' comprehensive synthesis, which integrated the works and doctrines of Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras, and other Greek philosophers.

The Italian Renaissance marked a resurgence of classical antiquity, commencing with the decline of the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines were regarded as the "librarians of the world" due to their extensive collection of classical manuscripts and the numerous humanist scholars residing in Constantinople (Hole).

During the Renaissance, Neoplatonism integrated Christian theological concepts with a renewed understanding of Plato's writings.

Marsilio Ficino (1433–1499) was "chiefly responsible for packaging and presenting Plato to the Renaissance" (Hole). In 1462, Cosimo I de' Medici, a patron of the arts with an interest in humanism and Platonism, supplied Ficino with all 36 of Plato's dialogues in Greek for translation. From 1462 to 1469, Ficino translated these texts into Latin, significantly broadening their accessibility, given that only a minority could read Greek. Subsequently, between 1484 and 1492, he translated Plotinus's works, introducing them to the Western world for the first time.

Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463–1494) also emerged as a prominent Neoplatonist during the Italian Renaissance. Proficient in Latin and Greek, he also possessed knowledge of Hebrew and Arabic. Unlike Ficino, who maintained favor with the Church, Pico's works were banned by the Pope due to their perceived heretical nature.

The endeavors by Ficino and Pico to integrate Neoplatonic and Hermetic doctrines into Roman Catholic Church teachings have recently been reinterpreted as an attempted "Hermetic Reformation."

Cambridge Platonists (17th Century)

During the seventeenth century in England, Neoplatonism formed a foundational aspect of the Cambridge Platonists' school of thought. This group included notable figures such as Henry More, Ralph Cudworth, Benjamin Whichcote, and John Smith, all alumni of the University of Cambridge. Coleridge contended that these thinkers were not strictly Platonists, but rather "more truly Plotinists," echoing More's description of "divine Plotinus."

Subsequently, Thomas Taylor, who was not a Cambridge Platonist, became the first to translate Plotinus's works into English.

Modern Neoplatonism

Prominent modern Neoplatonists include Thomas Taylor, known as "the English Platonist," who authored numerous works on Platonism and translated nearly the entirety of the Platonic and Plotinian corpora into English, as well as the Belgian author Suzanne Lilar.

Science fiction author Philip K. Dick identified as a Neoplatonist, exploring related mystical experiences and religious concepts within his theoretical writings, which are compiled in The Exegesis of Philip K. Dick.

Julius Evola integrated Neoplatonic metaphysics into his concept of a Roman pagan resurgence, consistent with his Traditionalist critique of contemporary society. Arturo Reghini, an Italian esotericist who collaborated with Evola, similarly advocated Neoplatonic principles in his endeavors to revitalize ancient Roman religious practices.

In her 1970 publication, The Sovereignty of Good, Iris Murdoch advocated for the reintroduction of numerous Platonic concepts within her affirmative framework of virtue ethics.

Notes

Notes

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