Mohism

Mohism or Moism (, Chinese: 墨家; pinyin: Mòjiā; lit. 'School of Mo') represented an ancient Chinese philosophical tradition encompassing ethics, logic, rational inquiry, and scientific principles, formulated by disciples of the ancient Chinese philosopher Mozi (c. 470 BC – c. 391 BC), and documented in the eponymous text, the Mozi. Core ethical principles included altruism and an impartial, universal regard for all individuals, believed to originate from the supreme deity Tian, emphasizing the virtues of frugality and utilitarian benefit. Subsequent Mohist logicians significantly advanced Chinese philosophy by elaborating upon its foundational doctrines.

Mohism emerged concurrently with Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism, constituting one of the four principal philosophical traditions during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods (approximately 770–221 BC). Throughout this era, Mohism was considered a significant intellectual competitor to Confucianism. Despite its lasting impact, Mohism largely ceased to exist as a distinct philosophical school, undergoing transformation and assimilation into various Taoist sects following the cultural shifts of the Qin dynasty, subsequent to 221 BC.

Paramilitary Organizations

The Mohists established a rigorously organized political entity dedicated to implementing the principles articulated in Mozi's writings. This organizational framework comprised a network of localized units across the prominent Chinese kingdoms of the era, drawing members from both the scholarly and laboring strata. Each unit was overseen by a juzi (literally, 'chisel,' a metaphor derived from craftsmanship). Adherence to a frugal and ascetic lifestyle was mandated within each unit. Each juzi was responsible for designating their successor. Similar to Confucian scholars, they offered their expertise not solely for remuneration but also to advance their ethical convictions. They frequently served as state advisors to the numerous warring kingdoms. Consequently, they shared characteristics with other itinerant philosophers and knight-errants of that epoch.

Mohists advocated for supporting the defensive campaigns of smaller Chinese states against the aggressive offensive strategies of larger, more dominant polities. They advanced the disciplines of fortification and statecraft, authoring treatises on governance that encompassed subjects from optimizing agricultural output to establishing inheritance laws. Their proficiency in mathematics and the physical sciences, coupled with their anti-militarist philosophy and artisanal skills, positioned them as the foremost siege-defense engineers before the Qin unification of China. Widely recognized in early China, Mohist adherents were sought after for their diplomatic and defensive engineering capabilities.

Mozi and his followers collaboratively and systematically developed and integrated defensive measures, encompassing weaponry, strategic approaches, and their associated logistical and military mobilization requirements. Numerous such innovations were practically implemented and persisted as integral components of military operations across historical periods. Consequently, the Mozi is highly regarded by contemporary scholars, recognized as a seminal work on military strategy, comparable to Sunzi's Art of War, with the former focusing on defensive tactics and the latter on offensive ones.

This particular aspect of Mohism is vividly illustrated by the narrative of Gongshu, documented within the Mohist canon. Upon learning that Gongshu Pan had constructed siege engines for the King of Chu, intended for an invasion of the smaller state of Song, Mozi undertook a ten-day and ten-night journey. Arriving in Chu, Mozi fashioned a symbolic wall from his belt and sticks to represent defensive machinery, demonstrating to Gongshu Pan the feasibility of defending Song against any offensive strategy Chu might employ. Mozi subsequently declared that three hundred of his disciples were already positioned on the walls of Song, prepared to repel Chu's forces. Consequently, the king aborted the invasion.

Overview

Mohism is primarily recognized for the concept commonly rendered as "universal love" (Chinese: 兼愛; pinyin: jiān ài; lit. 'inclusive love/care'). Edward Craig suggests that "impartial care" constitutes a more precise translation for 兼愛, arguing that Mozi's focus was predominantly on ethics rather than morality, given that morality often stems from fear rather than hope.

Caring and Impartiality

Mohist philosophy advocates for impartial caring, asserting that individuals should extend equal concern to all others, irrespective of their personal relationships. This demonstration of indiscriminate care is central to achieving righteousness within Mohist ideology. Such a stance on impartiality drew criticism from other Chinese philosophical traditions, particularly Confucianism. Confucians contended that while love should be unconditional, it ought not to be indiscriminate, positing, for instance, that children should naturally harbor a deeper affection for their parents than for unrelated individuals.

Mozi is recognized for his assertion that every individual merits equal access to material benefits and protection from physical harm. Within Mohism, morality is not derived from tradition and ritual but from a consistent moral framework akin to utilitarianism. Recognizing the cultural variability of traditions, Mohists argued for an external moral guide to discern ethically sound practices. This guide's purpose is to foster social behaviors that optimize the collective well-being of all members within a given society.

The notion of Ai (愛) originated with the 4th-century BC Chinese philosopher Mozi, formulated as a response to Confucian benevolent love. Mozi sought to supplant what he perceived as an excessive and deeply ingrained Chinese emphasis on family and clan ties with the principle of "universal love" (jiān'ài, 兼愛). He directly challenged Confucian beliefs that it was natural and appropriate for individuals to exhibit varying degrees of care towards different people. Mozi, conversely, maintained that all individuals should, in principle, be cared for equally. Mohism emphasized that love should be unconditional and extended to everyone, irrespective of reciprocation, rather than being selectively applied to friends, family, or other Confucian relationships. Subsequently, in Chinese Buddhism, the term Ai (愛) was adopted to denote a passionate, caring love, regarded as a fundamental human desire. Within Buddhist thought, Ai was understood to manifest as either selfish or selfless, with the latter being crucial for attaining enlightenment.

Consequentialism

In contrast to hedonistic utilitarianism, which posits pleasure as the ultimate moral good, Mohist consequentialism identifies its fundamental goods as "order, material wealth, and increase in population." During Mozi's historical period, widespread warfare and famines made population growth a perceived moral imperative for societal harmony. The "material wealth" within Mohist consequentialism encompasses essential provisions such as shelter and clothing. David Shepherd Nivison, a sinologist at Stanford, observes in The Cambridge History of Ancient China that Mohist moral goods are interconnected: "An example of this would be, more basic wealth, then more reproduction; more people, then more production and wealth... if people have plenty, they would be good, filial, kind, and so on unproblematically." Unlike Bentham's perspective, state consequentialism, as conceived by Mohists, diverges from utilitarianism by not being hedonistic. It prioritizes outcomes beneficial to the state over individual pleasure and suffering.

Society

Mozi theorized that societal organization, functioning akin to an integrated organism, mitigates the waste and inefficiencies inherent in an unorganized "natural state." He attributed conflicts to the lack of moral consensus within human cultures in this natural state, specifically the absence of clear definitions for what constitutes right (是 shì) and wrong (非 fēi). Consequently, Mozi advocated for selecting leaders who would appoint virtuous subordinates, thereby establishing a hierarchy that reconciles these moral distinctions. In this framework, government operates as an authoritative and streamlined instrument. Given that leaders within this social structure are expected to perfectly align with the ruler, who in turn is entirely subservient to Heaven, universal conformity in speech and conduct is mandated. This model, however, does not accommodate freedom of speech. Nevertheless, its potentially repressive aspects are balanced by mandatory communication between subjects and their leaders, requiring subjects to report all positive and negative occurrences to their rulers. Mohism fundamentally opposes all forms of aggression, particularly interstate warfare, though it permits the use of force for legitimate self-defense.

Meritocratic Government

Mozi advocated against nepotism, a prevalent social norm of his era. This practice facilitated the allocation of significant governmental roles based on familial connections instead of individual merit, thereby impeding social mobility. Mozi posited that individuals qualified for a particular task should retain their positions, irrespective of their familial lineage. Conversely, an incompetent official, even if closely related to the ruler, warranted demotion, potentially leading to destitution.

Rulers ought to cultivate close relationships with talented individuals, valuing their abilities and frequently soliciting their advice. Failure to identify and comprehend the talents within a nation would inevitably lead to its downfall. Historically, numerous individuals were tragically eliminated not due to their weaknesses, but precisely because of their exceptional strengths. Analogously, a powerful bow is challenging to draw yet achieves great range; a robust horse is difficult to ride yet capable of bearing heavy loads over long distances. Similarly, while talented individuals may be challenging to govern, they ultimately confer prestige upon their rulers.

The concept of law and order constituted a fundamental tenet of Mozi's philosophical framework. Mozi drew an analogy between a carpenter, who employs standardized tools for their craft, and a ruler, who might lack any established principles for governance. A carpenter consistently achieves superior outcomes by relying on standardized instruments rather than personal sentiments. Paradoxically, despite the profound impact of a ruler's decisions on an entire nation, the imperative for them to adhere to a defined set of standards is paramount, yet often absent. Such standards, Mozi argued, cannot emanate from human beings, given inherent human imperfection; consequently, the sole legitimate source for a ruler's guiding principles must be Heaven, as only Heaven embodies perfection. This divine law, according to Mozi, is Love.

Within an ideal governmental framework, characterized by a ruler's benevolent love for all citizens and the meritocratic selection of officials, the populace should exhibit unity in both belief and expression. The foundational intent behind this doctrine was to foster societal cohesion and mitigate sectarian divisions. Nevertheless, under conditions of corruption and tyrannical rule, this very teaching could be perverted into an instrument of subjugation.

An unrighteous ruler, Mozi warned, would precipitate seven catastrophic outcomes for their nation. These seven calamities include:

1. Neglect of national defense while simultaneously excessive resources are expended on the royal palace.
2. A lack of assistance from neighboring states when the nation faces external pressure.
3. The populace is occupied with unproductive labor, while incompetent individuals receive rewards.
4. Laws and regulations become excessively burdensome, fostering repressive fear and leading individuals to prioritize solely their self-interest.
5. The ruler harbors a deluded perception of their own capabilities and the nation's actual strength.
6. Individuals who are trusted prove disloyal, while loyal subjects are not afforded trust.
7. Scarcity of provisions, rendering ministers incapable of performing their duties, and a breakdown where punishment no longer instills fear nor reward elicits contentment.

A nation afflicted by these seven calamities would be readily vanquished by its adversaries.

In Mohist philosophy, national prosperity is gauged by adequate provisions and a substantial population. Frugality is considered instrumental in achieving these objectives. By embracing contentment with sufficient resources, individuals would be liberated from arduous labor, protracted warfare, and poverty stemming from income inequality. Such conditions would facilitate an increase in the birth rate. Mozi further advocated for early marriage.

Supernatural Forces

During that era, rulers frequently administered ritualistic punishments and rewards to their subjects in locations of spiritual significance, aiming to attract the attention of these spirits and uphold justice. The reverence for these spirits was considered so paramount that ancient Chinese ancestors inscribed directives on bamboo, plates, and stones, intending to secure the perpetual adherence of their descendants to celestial decrees. Mozi's doctrines referenced the offering of bulls and rams as sacrifices during designated periods in the spring and autumn seasons. These spirits were characterized as either the primordial, pre-existing entities of nature or the souls of deceased humans.

The Mohists critically engaged with elaborate funeral ceremonies and other extravagant rituals, advocating for austerity in both personal life and governance; however, they did not consider spiritual sacrifices to be wasteful. Drawing upon historical records, Mohists asserted that the spirits of unjustly murdered innocent individuals had previously manifested to exact retribution. Furthermore, spirits were documented to have appeared to execute other acts of justice. Mohists adhered to a belief in Heaven as a divine force (天 Tian), a celestial bureaucracy, and spirits capable of discerning and punishing human immoralities, thereby promoting moral rectitude. They expressed caution regarding some of the era's more atheistic thinkers, such as Han Fei. Given the imprecise nature of these historical accounts, it is plausible that Mohist scribes themselves may have lacked complete clarity on this particular subject.

Opposition to Fatalism

Mozi vehemently opposed the fatalistic mindset prevalent among people, attributing to it the causation of poverty and suffering. To counter this perspective, Mozi established three criteria (San Biao) for evaluating the validity of various viewpoints. These criteria included:

1. Assessment based on historical precedent.
2. Evaluation grounded in the collective experiences of ordinary individuals.
3. Determination of utility through practical application in legal or political frameworks.

In essence, fatalism, defined as the conviction that all outcomes are predetermined or fated, constitutes an irresponsible belief, according to Mozi. He contended that this belief is embraced by those who refuse to acknowledge that their own lack of responsibility has precipitated the hardships in their lives. Prosperity or poverty, he argued, are directly correlated with virtue or vice, respectively, a conclusion reached through deductive reasoning and individual logic, rather than fate. Mozi characterized fatalism, which he believed invariably culminates in misanthropic theory and behavior, as "A social heresy which needs to be disarmed, dissolved and destroyed."

Critique of Ostentation

By Mozi's era, Chinese rulers and affluent citizens commonly practiced extravagant burial rituals. Substantial wealth was interred with the deceased, and ritualistic mourning could involve extreme displays, such as walking hunched over with a stick for three years. Such protracted funerals prevented individuals from engaging in agricultural work or caring for their families, consequently leading to widespread poverty. Mozi condemned these lengthy and lavish funerals, further arguing that they would foster resentment among the living population.

Mozi regarded aesthetics as largely devoid of practical value. In contrast to Confucius, he exhibited a distinct aversion to any advancements in ritual music and the fine arts. Mozi dedicated several chapters, collectively titled "Against Music" (非樂), to elaborating on this stance. While acknowledging his personal appreciation for pleasant experiences, he deemed such pursuits to be without utility in governance or in benefiting the common populace. Instead, he argued that the development of music consumes human labor, thereby diminishing food production. Moreover, the indulgence in music reduces the time available for administrative duties. This excessive development, he posited, would ultimately lead to food shortages and societal anarchy, as manpower would be diverted from agriculture and other essential tasks towards ostentatious endeavors. Civilians, in turn, would emulate the ruler's desires, exacerbating the situation. Mozi likely advanced this perspective in response to the historical context of the Warring States period, during which the Zhou king and aristocrats devoted immense time to cultivating intricate music, while ordinary peasants struggled to meet their basic subsistence needs. For Mozi, only fundamental necessities were sufficient, and resources ought to be allocated to directly benefit humanity.

School of Names

Among the notable offshoots of Mohism is the School of Names, whose adherents focused on resolving logical puzzles. Unfortunately, a limited corpus of their writings has survived, primarily because subsequent Chinese philosophers largely considered problems of logic to be trivial. Historians such as Joseph Needham have interpreted this group as developing a nascent philosophy of science that never fully matured; however, other scholars contend that categorizing these Logicians as proto-scientists reflects an anachronistic modern bias.

Mathematics

The Mohist canon, known as the Mo Jing, detailed numerous facets of physical science and offered substantial insights into mathematics. It posited an 'atomic' definition for the geometric point, asserting that a line is composed of divisible parts, and the ultimate, indivisible segment—the extreme terminus of a line—constitutes a point. Echoing Euclid's initial and third definitions and Plato's concept of a 'beginning of a line', the Mo Jing articulated that "a point may stand at the end (of a line) or at its beginning like a head-presentation in childbirth. (As to its invisibility) there is nothing similar to it." Paralleling the atomistic theories of Democritus, the Mo Jing declared a point to be the most fundamental unit, incapable of bisection, as 'nothing' cannot be divided. Furthermore, it stipulated that two lines of identical length will invariably conclude at the same position, while also furnishing definitions for the comparison of lengths, parallels, and principles governing space and bounded regions. The text additionally elucidated that planes lacking thickness cannot be stacked due to their inability to make mutual contact. Comprehensive definitions for circumference, diameter, radius, and volume were also included in the work.

Decline

The unification of China under the Qin dynasty eliminated the perpetual conflict among various states. Consequently, the Mohists, who had previously been invaluable in urban defense against external aggressors, found their specialized skills rendered obsolete in the absence of warfare, particularly siege warfare. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy posits that, beyond the decrease in siege warfare, "...the major factor is probably that as a social and philosophical movement, Mohism gradually collapsed into irrelevance. By the middle of the former Han dynasty, the more appealing aspects of Mohist thought were all shared with rival schools."

The fundamental ethical tenets of Mohism were largely assimilated into Confucianism, albeit in an altered and unsystematic manner. Significant elements of their political philosophy were likely shared with other contemporary political theorists, and their characteristic anti-war stance became effectively superfluous following the unification. The philosophical treatises on language, epistemology, metaphysics, and science found in the later Mohist Canons were documented in challenging, intricate texts that would have been largely incomprehensible to most readers and, in any event, rapidly deteriorated. What persisted as uniquely Mohist were austere and unappealing economic and cultural perspectives, exemplified by their preoccupation with frugality and their repudiation of music and ritual. In contrast to the classical scholarship and ceremonial practices of the Confucians, the speculative metaphysics of Yin-Yang proponents, and the romantic nature mysticism and literary refinement of the Daoists, Mohism presented minimal appeal to potential followers, particularly those with political influence.

Modern Perspectives

Jin Guantao, a professor at the Institute of Chinese Studies at the Chinese University of Hong Kong; Fan Hongye, a research fellow at the Chinese Academy of Sciences' Institute of Science Policy and Managerial Science; and Liu Qingfeng, a professor at the Institute of Chinese Culture, also at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, have collectively contended that the absence of proto-scientific principles within ancient Mohist philosophy deprived Chinese science of a clear structural foundation:

From the middle and late Eastern Han to the early Wei and Jin dynasties, the net growth of ancient Chinese science and technology experienced a peak (second only to that of the Northern Song dynasty)... Han studies of the Confucian classics, which for a long time had hindered the socialization of science, were declining. If Mohism, rich in scientific thought, had rapidly grown and strengthened, the situation might have been very favorable to the development of a scientific structure. However, this did not happen because the seeds of the primitive structure of science were never formed. During the late Eastern Han, disastrous upheavals again occurred in the process of social transformation, leading to the greatest social disorder in Chinese history. One can imagine the effect of this calamity on science.

• Asceticism
• Buddhist ethics
• Effective altruism
• Wu wei

Sources

• Clarke, J (2000). Tao of the West: Western Transformation of Taoist Thought. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-20620-4.Jin, Guantao; Fan, Hongye; Liu, Qingfeng (1996). Chinese Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.Ivanhoe, Philip J.; Van Norden, Brian W., eds. (2001). Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy. Indianapolis: Hackett.——— (2001). Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy. New Haven, CT: Seven Bridges Press. ISBN 978-1-889119-09-0.Needham, Joseph (1956). History of Scientific Thought. Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 2, p. 697. ISBN 978-0-52105800-1.{{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
• ——— (1986). Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 3. Taipei, Taiwan: Caves Books.The Mozi: A Complete Translation. Translated by Johnston, Ian. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. 2010.
  • The Mozi: A Complete Translation. Translated by Johnston, Ian. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. 2010.Brecht, Bertolt (1971). Me-ti. Book of Changes (German: Me-ti. Buch der Wendungen). Frankfurt: Suhrkamp.Chang, Wejen (1990). Traditional Chinese Jurisprudence: Legal Thought of Pre-Qin Thinkers. Cambridge.Chan, Wing-tsit, ed. (1969). A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01964-9.Frasier, Chris (2016). The Philosophy of the Mozi: The First Consequentialists. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231149273.Geaney, Jane (1999). "A Critique of A. C. Graham's Reconstruction of the 'Neo-Mohist Canons". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 119 (1): 1–11. doi:10.2307/605537. JSTOR 605537.Graham, Angus C. (1993). Disputers of the Tao: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China. Open Court. ISBN 0-8126-9087-7.——— (2004) [1978]. Later Mohist Logic, Ethics and Science. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press.Hansen, Chad (1989). "Mozi: Language Utilitarianism: The Structure of Ethics in Classical China". The Journal of Chinese Philosophy. 16: 355–80. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6253.1989.tb00443.x.——— (1992). A Daoist Theory of Chinese Thought. New York: Oxford University Press.Hsiao, Kung-chuan Hsiao (1979). A History of Chinese Political Thought. Vol. One: From the Beginnings to the Sixth Century A.D. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Mei, Y. P. (1973) [1934]. Mo-tse, the Neglected Rival of Confucius. London: Arthur Probsthain.Moritz, Ralf (1990). The Philosophy in Ancient China (German: Die Philosophie im alten China). Berlin: Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften. ISBN 3-326-00466-4.Opitz, Peter J. (1999). The Way of Heaven: On the Spirit and Form of Political Thought in Classical China (German: Der Weg des Himmels: Zum Geist und zur Gestalt des politischen Denkens im klassischen China). München: Fink. ISBN 3-7705-3380-1.Schmidt-Glintzer, Helwig, ed. (1992). Mo Ti: On the Love of Heaven for Humanity (German: Mo Ti: Von der Liebe des Himmels zu den Menschen). München: Diederichs. ISBN 3-424-01029-4.———, ed. (1975). Mo Ti: Solidarity and Universal Love for Humanity (German: Mo Ti: Solidarität und allgemeine Menschenliebe). Düsseldorf/Köln: Diederichs. ISBN 3-424-00509-6.———, ed. (1975). Mo Ti: Against War (German: Mo Ti: Gegen den Krieg). Düsseldorf/Köln: Diederichs. ISBN 3-424-00509-6.Sterckx, Roel (2019). Chinese Thought. From Confucius to Cook Ding. London: Penguin.Sun, Yirang (孙诒让), ed. (2001). Mozi xiangu 墨子闲诂 [Notes to Mozi]. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju.Vitalii Aronovich, Rubin (1976). Individual and State in Ancient China: Essays on Four Chinese Philosophers. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04064-4.Yates, Robin D. S. (1980). "The Mohists on Warfare: Technology, Technique, and Justification". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 47 (3): 549–603.
    • Fraser, Chris. "Mohism." In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN 1095-5054. OCLC 429049174.
    • Fraser, Chris. "Mohism". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN 1095-5054. OCLC 429049174.Fraser, Chris. "Mohist Canons." In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN 1095-5054. OCLC 429049174.Source: TORIma Academy Archive