Monism

Monism, derived from the Greek term μόνος (meaning 'single' or 'one'), posits the fundamental unity or singularity of a given concept, often applied to existence itself. Distinct categories of monistic thought can be identified:

• Priority monism asserts that all phenomena originate from a singular, distinct source. For instance, Neoplatonism posits that all existence emanates from The One, which is considered ontologically fundamental and prior to all other entities.
• Existence monism contends that, fundamentally, only one entity—the universe—truly exists. Any perceived multiplicity is merely an artificial and arbitrary division of this singular reality.
• Substance monism proposes that the diverse array of existing entities can be understood as manifestations of a single underlying reality or substance. This perspective maintains that only one fundamental type of substance exists, from which numerous distinct things, such as matter or mind, are constituted.
• Dual-aspect monism conceptualizes the mental and the physical as two distinct facets or perspectives of a singular underlying substance.
• Neutral monism posits that the fundamental essence of reality is neither mental nor physical, thus characterizing it as 'neutral'.
• Political monism occasionally serves to characterize political ideologies, such as unitarianism, that are founded upon singular principles like ethnicity or identity.

Definitions

Monism is typically understood through two primary definitional frameworks:

• The broad definition characterizes a philosophy as monistic if it asserts a singular origin for all phenomena, implying that all existing entities ultimately derive from a distinct, unified source.
• The restricted definition, conversely, demands not only a unity of origin but also a fundamental unity in substance and essence.

While the term monism originated in Western philosophy to describe stances on the mind–body problem, its application has extended to characterize various religious traditions. In contemporary Hinduism, "absolute monism" has been associated with Advaita Vedanta; however, Philip Renard suggests this may represent a Western conceptualization that overlooks the inherent nondual understanding of reality. Scholars more commonly classify it as a form of absolute nondualism.

History

The origins of material monism can be traced to pre-Socratic philosophers who endeavored to understand the arche, or fundamental principle, of the universe through various material causes. These included Thales, who posited water as the foundational element; Anaximenes, who claimed air; and Heraclitus, who believed it to be fire. Subsequently, Parmenides described the world as an immutable 'One.' Zeno of Elea further defended this view of a singular entity through his paradoxes, which aimed to demonstrate the illusory nature of time, motion, and space.

Baruch Spinoza contended that 'God or Nature' (Deus sive Natura) constitutes the sole substance of the universe, with 'God' and 'Nature' being interchangeable designations. This assertion stems from the premise that God/Nature possesses all conceivable attributes, and since no two substances can share an attribute, no other substances beyond God/Nature can exist.

Monism has been extensively explored within Indian philosophy and Vedanta, with discussions dating back to the Rig Veda. The term monism itself was coined in the 18th century by Christian von Wolff in his treatise Logic (1728). He used it to categorize philosophical systems that sought to resolve the mind–body dichotomy and account for all phenomena through a single unifying principle or as expressions of a singular substance.

The philosophical mind–body problem investigates the intricate relationship between mental and material realms, specifically focusing on consciousness and its connection to the brain. This issue was notably addressed by René Descartes in the 17th century, leading to the formulation of Cartesian dualism, and also by pre-Aristotelian thinkers, within Avicennian philosophy, and in earlier Asian, particularly Indian, intellectual traditions.

Subsequently, monism was also applied to the theory of absolute identity developed by Hegel and Schelling. Following this, the term gained broader usage, encompassing any theoretical framework that posited a unifying principle. Concurrently, the opposing thesis of dualism was expanded to include pluralism. According to Urmson, this broadened application has rendered the term 'systematically ambiguous'.

Jonathan Schaffer posits that monism declined in prominence with the rise of analytic philosophy in the early twentieth century, a movement that opposed neo-Hegelian thought. Prominent positivists such as Rudolf Carnap and A. J. Ayer dismissed the entire inquiry as "incoherent mysticism."

The mind-body problem has resurfaced within social psychology and allied disciplines, driven by a renewed focus on mind-body interaction and a rejection of Cartesian mind-body dualism, particularly evident in the identity thesis, a contemporary manifestation of monism. Furthermore, monism retains its significance in the philosophy of mind, where diverse perspectives continue to be advocated.

Categories

Monism encompasses several distinct classifications:

• Substance monism, which asserts that the perceived multiplicity of substances originates from various states or manifestations of a singular underlying substance.
• Attributive monism, which proposes that regardless of the quantity of substances, they fundamentally belong to a single ultimate category.
• Epistemological monism, which posits that all cognizable, observable, and interactive phenomena ultimately share a unified, albeit potentially intricate, conceptual system of interaction.
• Partial monism, which contends that within any specified domain of existence, only one substance prevails.
• Existence monism, which maintains that only a single concrete object token exists, often referred to as The One, "Τὸ Ἕν," or the Monad.
• Priority monism, which asserts that the whole precedes its constituent parts, or alternatively, that while the world possesses parts, these parts are interdependent fragments of an integrated totality.
• Property monism, which holds that all properties are of a singular type, for instance, that only physical properties exist.
• Genus monism, which advocates for the existence of a supreme category, such as being.

Concepts that diverge from monism include:

• Metaphysical dualism, which posits the existence of two fundamentally irreconcilable substances or realities, exemplified by concepts like Good and Evil, as seen in Gnosticism and Manichaeism.
• Metaphysical pluralism, which asserts the existence of three or more fundamental substances or realities.
• Metaphysical nihilism, which negates the existence of any of the aforementioned categories, including substances, properties, or concrete objects.

Contemporary philosophy of mind categorizes monism into three principal divisions:

• Idealist or mentalistic monism, which posits that only mind or spirit constitutes reality.
• Neutral monism, which asserts the fundamental existence of a singular entity to which both mental and physical phenomena can be reduced.
• Material monism, also known as physicalism or materialism, which maintains the primacy of the material world and proposes that consciousness emerges from interactions within this material realm.
• Eliminative materialism, which contends that all phenomena are physical and that mental entities do not exist.
• Reductive physicalism, which posits that mental entities exist and are a specific type of physical entity.

Some philosophical stances, including functionalism, anomalous monism, and reflexive monism, do not readily align with the aforementioned classifications. Furthermore, these positions do not delineate the definition of "real."

Proponents of Monism

Pre-Socratic Thinkers

Despite limited historical data precluding definitive certainty regarding specific details, the subsequent pre-Socratic philosophers articulated monistic perspectives:

• Thales: Identified water as the fundamental principle.
• Anaximander: Proposed the Apeiron, signifying 'the undefined infinite,' as the ultimate reality, asserting that reality is a singular, unknowable entity.
• Anaximenes of Miletus: Posited air as the primary substance.
• Heraclitus: Emphasized change, symbolized by fire, to represent the perpetual state of flux inherent in all existence.
• Parmenides: Described Being or Reality as an immutable, perfect sphere, characterized by its unchanging and undivided nature.

Post-Socratic Thinkers

• Neopythagoreans, including Apollonius of Tyana, structured their cosmologies around the concept of the Monad or the One.
• The Stoics asserted the existence of a single substance, which they equated with God.
• Middle Platonism, particularly through works by Numenius, propagated the doctrine that the Universe emanates from the Monad or the One.
• Neoplatonism fundamentally adheres to monism. Plotinus expounded upon an ineffable, transcendent deity, 'The One,' from which all subsequent realities emanated. Specifically, the Divine Mind (Nous), the Cosmic Soul (Psyche), and the World (Cosmos) are understood to emanate from The One.

Modern Era

Neuroscientists with Monistic Views

• György Buzsáki
• Francis Crick
• Karl Friston
• Eric Kandel
• Mark Solms
• Rodolfo Llinas
• Ivan Pavlov
• Roger Sperry

Religious Perspectives

Pantheism

Pantheism posits that all existence constitutes an all-encompassing, immanent divine entity, or that the cosmos itself is synonymous with divinity. Adherents of pantheism may or may not subscribe to the concept of a personal or anthropomorphic deity, acknowledging that interpretations of the term vary significantly.

In the modern era, pantheism gained prominence as both a theological and philosophical framework, largely influenced by the 17th-century philosopher Baruch Spinoza. His seminal work, Ethics, directly challenged Descartes' renowned dualistic theory, which posited a separation between body and spirit. Spinoza, conversely, asserted their fundamental unity, a monistic principle central to his philosophical system. He was famously characterized as a "God-intoxicated man," employing the term "God" to denote the singular unity of all substance. Despite the term "pantheism" being coined posthumously, Spinoza is widely recognized as its most distinguished proponent.

H. P. Owen articulated that:

Pantheists are "monists," subscribing to the belief in a singular Being, with all other manifestations of reality understood as either modes or appearances of this sole entity, or as being identical to it.

Pantheism shares a close conceptual affinity with monism, given that pantheists also perceive all of reality as a singular substance, variously termed the Universe, God, or Nature. Panentheism, a distinct but related concept, will be elaborated subsequently. Notable historical figures associated with pantheism include the Stoics, Giordano Bruno, and Spinoza.

Panentheism

Panentheism, derived from the Greek terms πᾶν (pân) meaning "all," ἐν (en) meaning "in," and θεός (theós) meaning "God," translates to "all-in-God." This belief system asserts that the divine—whether conceived as a monotheistic deity, polytheistic gods, or an eternal cosmic animating force—pervades every aspect of nature, yet remains distinct from nature itself. Panentheism is thus distinguished from pantheism, which posits that the divine is entirely synonymous with the universe.

Within panentheism, a duality of substance is recognized: the universe ("pan") and God. The universe and the divine are not considered ontologically equivalent. God is conceptualized as the perpetual animating force inherent within the cosmos. Certain interpretations of panentheism suggest that the cosmos is contained within God, who simultaneously "transcends," "pervades," or resides "in" the cosmos.

Whereas pantheism posits the identity of 'All is God,' panentheism maintains that God both animates and transcends the entire universe. Furthermore, certain formulations suggest that the universe is encompassed within God, a concept akin to the Judaic notion of Tzimtzum. A significant portion of Hindu philosophical thought exhibits strong characteristics of both panentheism and pantheism.

Paul Tillich, along with liberal biblical scholar Marcus Borg and mystical theologian Matthew Fox, an Episcopal priest, has advocated for such a concept within Christian theology.

Pandeism

Pandeism, also referred to as pan-deism, derives its name from the Ancient Greek πᾶν, romanized: pan, lit. 'all', and the Latin deus, signifying "god" in the deistic sense. This term denotes a set of beliefs that systematically integrate or blend logically compatible aspects of pantheism—the notion that "God," or a metaphysically analogous creator deity, is identical to Nature—and classical deism—the conviction that the creator-god who designed the universe no longer exists in an accessible state, but can only be affirmed through reason. Consequently, pandeism specifically posits that the universe's creator actually transformed into the universe itself, thereby ceasing to exist as a distinct entity.

This synergistic approach allows pandeism to address fundamental critiques leveled against deism (specifically, the question of why a divine creator would establish the universe and subsequently refrain from interaction) and pantheism (concerning the universe's origin and ultimate purpose).

Indian and East Asian Religions

Defining Characteristics

A primary concern within Asian religious philosophy is not the mind-body dichotomy, but rather the pursuit of an immutable Reality or Absolute transcending the realm of ephemeral appearances and fluctuating phenomena, alongside the quest for liberation from *dukkha* and the cycle of rebirth. Hinduism predominantly features a substance-ontology, wherein Brahman is perceived as the unchanging ultimate reality beyond sensory experience. Conversely, Buddhism largely adopts a process ontology, viewing reality as devoid of an inherent, unchanging essence.

A defining characteristic of various Asian philosophies, technologies, and religions is the recognition of multiple levels of truth, an emphasis on intuitive and experiential comprehension of the Absolute, exemplified by concepts like jnana, bodhi, and jianxing (Chinese: 見性), and the application of yin and yang principles in East Asian medicine, all emphasizing the integration and understanding of these diverse truths.

Hinduism

Vedanta

Vedanta involves the systematic inquiry into and organization of the Vedas and Upanishads, aiming to reconcile the diverse and often contrasting philosophical concepts present within these scriptures. Several distinct schools of thought have emerged within Vedanta:

• Vishishtadvaita, a qualified monism, is a philosophical system attributed to Ramanuja.
• Shuddhadvaita, an in-essence monism, represents the philosophical tradition of Vallabha.
• Dvaitadvaita, a differential monism, was established by Nimbarka.
• Achintya Bheda Abheda, a school of Vedanta founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, which posits the philosophy of inconceivable one-ness and difference. This school is often interpreted as synthesizing the strict dualist (dvaita) theology of Madhvacharya and the qualified monism (vishishtadvaita) of Ramanuja.

Modern Hinduism

British colonial rule in India significantly influenced Hindu society. Consequently, prominent Hindu intellectuals engaged with Western culture and philosophy, incorporating various Western concepts into Hindu thought. This modernized form of Hinduism subsequently achieved considerable recognition in the West.

During the 19th century, Swami Vivekananda played a pivotal role in the revitalization of Hinduism and the dissemination of Advaita Vedanta to the Western world through the Ramakrishna Mission. His specific interpretation of Advaita Vedanta is frequently referred to as Neo-Vedanta. Within Advaita philosophy, Shankara posited that meditation and Nirvikalpa Samadhi serve as instruments for realizing the inherent unity of Brahman and Atman, rather than constituting the ultimate objective themselves:

[Y]oga is a meditative practice involving disengagement from the particular and identification with the universal, culminating in the contemplation of the self as the most universal entity, specifically Consciousness. This methodology diverges from the classical Yoga tradition of complete thought suppression.

Vivekananda, according to Gavin Flood, was "a figure of great importance in the development of a modern Hindu self-understanding and in formulating the West's view of Hinduism." A core tenet of his philosophy posits that divinity resides within all beings, asserting that every individual can attain union with this "innate divinity," and that recognizing this divine essence in others promotes love and social harmony. Vivekananda maintained that an underlying essential unity pervades Hinduism, despite the diversity of its numerous manifestations. Flood suggests that Vivekananda's interpretation of Hinduism is currently the most prevalent among adherents. Flood further argues that this monistic perspective forms the bedrock of earlier Upanishadic thought, extends to theosophy within the later Vedanta tradition, and is evident in modern Neo-Hinduism.

Buddhism

According to the Pāli Canon, both pluralism (nānatta) and monism (ekatta) are considered speculative viewpoints. A Theravada commentary indicates that pluralism is akin to or linked with nihilism (ucchēdavāda), while monism is comparable to or associated with eternalism (sassatavada).

Levels of truth

Within Buddhism, a diverse array of philosophical and pedagogical frameworks exists. Numerous Buddhist schools articulate distinct levels of truth:

• The Two Truths doctrine of the Madhyamaka
• The Three Natures of the Yogacara
• The Essence-Function (or Absolute-Relative) distinction in Chinese and Korean Buddhism
• The Trikaya doctrine, comprising:
  • The Dharmakāya, also known as the Truth Body, which embodies the fundamental principle of enlightenment and is boundless;
  • The Sambhogakāya, or Body of Mutual Enjoyment, representing a body of bliss or a clear light manifestation;
  • The Nirmāṇakāya, or Created Body, which manifests within temporal and spatial dimensions.

The Prajnaparamita-sutras and Madhyamaka underscore the non-duality of form and emptiness, famously articulated in the Heart Sutra as "form is emptiness, emptiness is form." Within Chinese Buddhism, this concept was interpreted to signify that ultimate reality is not a transcendent domain but is equivalent to the everyday world of relative existence. This perspective resonated strongly with the prevailing Chinese cultural emphasis on the mundane world and societal structures. However, this explanation does not fully elucidate the manner in which the absolute manifests within the relative world:

Denying the duality of samsara and nirvana, as exemplified by the Perfection of Wisdom tradition, or logically demonstrating the fallacy of dichotomous conceptualization, as Nagarjuna did, does not directly address the fundamental relationship between samsara and nirvana. More philosophically, this concerns the connection between phenomenal and ultimate reality. Consequently, the nature of the relationship between these two realms remains a critical inquiry.

This inquiry is explored through various conceptual frameworks, including Tozan's Five Ranks, the Oxherding Pictures, and Hakuin's Four Ways of Knowing.

Sikhism

Sikhism adheres to the concept of Absolute Monism. Sikh philosophy posits that all sensory perceptions constitute an illusion, with God representing the ultimate reality. Temporal forms are transient, whereas God's reality alone is eternal and enduring. The Atma (soul) is considered to originate from and reflect the ParamAtma (Supreme Soul), destined to "again merge into it," as articulated by Guru Arjan, the fifth Sikh Guru, "just as water merges back into the water."

God and the Soul are fundamentally identical, akin to fire and its sparks. The dictum "Atam meh Ram, Ram meh Atam" signifies that the ultimate eternal reality resides within the Soul, and the Soul is contained within this reality. Analogously, just as countless waves emerge from a single stream and subsequently reintegrate into the water, all individual souls originate from the Universal Being and are destined to blend back into it.

Abrahamic Faiths

Judaism

Jewish theology posits God as distinct from all physical, created entities and as existing beyond temporal constraints.

Maimonides asserted that God is an incorporeal being, the ultimate cause of all other existence. Attributing corporeality to God, he argued, would imply complexity, which contradicts God's nature as the first cause and constitutes heresy. While Hasidic mystics perceived the physical world's existence as conflicting with God's absolute simplicity, Maimonides found no such contradiction.

Hasidic thought, particularly as articulated by Shneur Zalman of Liadi, the founder of Chabad in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, posits God's immanence within creation for two interconnected reasons:

1. A foundational tenet of Jewish belief asserts that "[t]he Divine life-force which brings [the universe] into existence must constantly be present... were this life-force to forsake [the universe] for even one brief moment, it would revert to a state of utter nothingness, as before the creation..."
2. Concurrently, Judaism axiomatically maintains that God is an absolute unity and perfectly simple. Consequently, if His sustaining power resides within nature, then His essence must also be immanent within nature.{{}}

Christianity

Creator–Creature Distinction

Christians assert that God created the universe ex nihilo, rather than from His own substance, thereby distinguishing the Creator from creation, which He transcends. A movement advocating "Christian Panentheism" also exists.

Rejection of Radical Dualism

In On Free Choice of the Will, Augustine contended, within the framework of the problem of evil, that evil is not the antithesis of good but merely its absence, lacking inherent existence. Similarly, C. S. Lewis characterized evil as a "parasite" in Mere Christianity, perceiving it as unable to exist independently without good to sustain it. Lewis further argued against dualism based on moral absolutism, rejecting the dualistic concept of God and Satan as opposing forces. He asserted that God possesses no equal and, consequently, no opposite, instead viewing Satan as the antithesis of Michael the archangel. Therefore, Lewis advocated for a more restricted form of dualism. Other theologians, such as Greg Boyd, have more extensively argued that biblical authors espoused a "limited dualism," implying that God and Satan engage in genuine conflict, but only through the free will granted by God and for a duration He permits.

Mormonism

Latter Day Saint theology articulates a form of dual-aspect monism, incorporating materialism and eternalism. It asserts that creation occurred *ex materia* (in contrast to the *ex nihilo* concept prevalent in conventional Christianity), a view expressed by Parley Pratt and echoed by the movement's founder, Joseph Smith. This theological framework posits no distinction between the spiritual and the material, considering them not merely similarly eternal but ultimately two manifestations of the same underlying reality or substance.

Parley Pratt articulated a concept of vitalism intertwined with evolutionary adaptation, asserting that "these eternal, self-existing elements possess in themselves certain inherent properties or attributes, in a greater or less degree; or, in other words, they possess intelligence, adapted to their several spheres."

Pratt's perspective also bears resemblance to Gottfried Leibniz's monadology, which posits that "reality consists of mind atoms that are living centers of force."

Brigham Young's vitalist philosophy suggests a proto-mentality inherent in elementary particles, stating, "there is life in all matter, throughout the vast extent of all the eternities; it is in the rock, the sand, the dust, in water, air, the gases, and in short, in every description and organization of matter; whether it be solid, liquid, or gaseous, particle operating with particle."

The Latter-day Saint (LDS) understanding of matter is characterized as "essentially dynamic rather than static, if indeed it is not a kind of living energy, and that it is subject at least to the rule of intelligence."

John A. Widstoe espoused a comparable, more vitalist viewpoint, contending that "Life is nothing more than matter in motion; that, therefore, all matter possess a kind of life... Matter... [is] intelligence... hence everything in the universe is alive." Nevertheless, Widstoe refrained from explicitly endorsing panpsychism.

Islam

Quran

Vincent Cornell posits that the Quran presents a monistic depiction of God, portraying reality as an integrated whole where God constitutes a singular concept encompassing all existing phenomena.

Conversely, the prevailing scholarly view asserts that Abrahamic religious texts, particularly the Quran, delineate creation and God as distinct entities. These scriptures clarify that while everything originates from God and is subject to divine control, creation is simultaneously differentiated by its dependence on God's existence.

Sufism

Certain Sufi mystics endorse monism, with a prominent example being the 13th-century Persian poet Rumi (1207–1273), who articulated monistic principles in his didactic poem, Masnavi. In the Masnavi, Rumi states:

In the shop for Unity (wahdat); anything that you see there except the One is an idol.

Nevertheless, other Sufi mystics, including Ahmad Sirhindi, maintained a dualistic monotheism, emphasizing the distinct separation of God and the Universe.

The most influential proponent of Islamic monism was the Sufi philosopher Ibn Arabi (1165–1240). He formulated the concept of 'unity of being' (Arabic: waḥdat al-wujūd), which some scholars interpret as a monistic philosophy. Originating from al-Andalus, Ibn Arabi profoundly influenced the Muslim world, earning the title "the great Master." His doctrines grew progressively contentious in the centuries after his demise. Ahmad Sirhindi, for instance, critiqued the monistic interpretation of 'unity of being,' instead advocating for the dualistic-compatible 'unity of witness' (Arabic: wahdat ash-shuhud), which upheld a clear distinction between creator and creation. Subsequently, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi endeavored to reconcile these two perspectives, asserting that their distinctions were primarily semantic. He argued that universal existence (which differs in creation from the creator) and the divine essence are distinct, and that universal existence emanates (in a non-Platonic sense) from the divine essence, with their relationship akin to that between the number four and the concept of an even number.

Shi'ism

The doctrine of waḥdat al-wujūd also commands significant adherence within the rationalist philosophy of Twelver Shi'ism, notably championed by the prominent modern figure Ruhollah Khomeini.

Baháʼí Faith

While the Baháʼí Faith's teachings predominantly focus on social and ethical concerns, several foundational texts are characterized as mystical. Among these are passages exhibiting a monistic character, such as those found in The Seven Valleys and the Hidden Words. The Baháʼí teachings reconcile the divergence between dualist and monist perspectives by asserting that these contrasting viewpoints arise from variations among observers rather than from the observed reality itself. This approach does not constitute a 'higher truth/lower truth' dichotomy. God is considered unknowable; therefore, it is impossible for humanity to attain any direct comprehension of God or the Absolute, as all human knowledge is inherently relative.

• Cosmic pluralism
• Henosis
• Indefinite monism
• Material monism
• Monistic idealism
• Ontological pluralism
• Realistic monism
• Sikhism
• Taoism
• Univocity of being
• Wuji

Notes

References

Sources

• Schaeffer, Jonathan. "Monism." In Zalta, Edward N. (Ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN 1095-5054. OCLC 429049174.Source: TORIma Academy Archive