philosophy

Yoga philosophy constitutes one of the six principal schools within Hindu philosophy, although its recognition as a distinct intellectual tradition, separate from Samkhya, emerged in Indian texts only towards the close of the first millennium CE. Across ancient, medieval, and contemporary scholarship, Yoga philosophy is frequently referred to simply as Yoga. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, a foundational text, compiles a systematic framework of Yoga's concepts and has profoundly influenced other Indian philosophical schools.

The metaphysical framework of Yoga aligns with the dualism of Samkhya, positing that the universe comprises two fundamental realities: Puruṣa (witness-consciousness) and Prakṛti (nature). A Jiva (living being) is understood as a condition where puruṣa is bound to Prakṛti in diverse configurations of elements, senses, emotions, actions, and intellect. When imbalance or ignorance prevails, certain constituents dominate others, resulting in a state of bondage. Both the Yoga and Samkhya schools of Hinduism term the cessation of this bondage as liberation, or mokṣa, which is attainable through insight and self-restraint.

The ethical framework of Yoga philosophy is grounded in the Yamas and Niyama, alongside principles from Samkhya's Guṇa theory. Epistemologically, Yoga philosophy, similar to the Sāmkhya school, employs three of the six Pramanas as valid tools for acquiring reliable knowledge. Specifically, these are Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference), and Sabda (Āptavacana, the testimony of reliable sources). Yoga philosophy distinguishes itself from the closely related non-theistic Samkhya school through its inclusion of the concept of Ishvara, a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god."

History

Yoga's emergence as a distinct philosophical school is documented in Indian texts beginning in the late first millennium CE. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali compile a compendium of practices and concepts central to the Yoga school of Hinduism. Following its dissemination during the first half of the millennium CE, numerous Indian scholars critically examined the text and subsequently published their Bhāṣya (notes and commentaries). Vyasa's commentary, potentially authored by Patanjali himself, formed an integrated work known as the Pātañjalayogaśāstra ("The Treatise on Yoga of Patañjali"). In medieval Indian texts, Yoga is enumerated among the six orthodox philosophical schools, alongside Samkhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta. According to Bryant,

Sāṁkhya and Yoga should not be considered different schools until a very late date: the first reference to Yoga itself as a distinct school seems to be in the writings of Śaṅkara in the 9th century C.E.

Larson observes that significant conceptual parallels exist between the Samkhya school of Hinduism, Yoga, and various Buddhist traditions, especially evident from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE. The Yoga Sutras integrate from Samkhya Hinduism the "reflective discernment" (adhyavasaya) of prakrti and purusa (dualism), its metaphysical rationalism, and its three epistemic methodologies for acquiring reliable knowledge. Larson contends that the Yoga Sutras derive the pursuit of an altered state of awareness from the Buddhist practice of nirodhasamadhi. However, in contrast to Buddhism's rejection of a fixed self, Yoga, like Samkhya, maintains a physicalist perspective, affirming the existence of an individual self and soul. A third philosophical element synthesized by the Yoga Sutras is the ancient ascetic traditions encompassing isolation, meditation, and introspection.

Metaphysics

Comparison to Samkhya

Yoga philosophy shares significant foundational principles with Samkhya. Both traditions posit two primary realities: Purusha and Prakriti. Purusha is defined as pure consciousness, unblemished by thoughts or qualities. Conversely, Prakriti represents the empirical, phenomenal reality, encompassing matter, mind, sensory organs, and the sense of identity (self/soul). Both schools posit a living being as the union of matter and mind. However, the Yoga school diverges from Samkhya concerning the ontology of Purusha, axiology, and soteriology.

The metaphysics of Yoga-Samkhya philosophy is characterized by a form of dualism. It posits consciousness and matter, as well as self/soul and body, as distinct realities.

The Samkhya-Yoga philosophical system posits a dualistic framework, distinguishing between consciousness and matter through the assertion of two fundamental, irreducible, and independent realities: Purusha and Prakriti. Although Prakriti is conceptualized as a singular entity, Samkhya-Yoga traditions acknowledge the existence of multiple Puruṣas within the phenomenal world. Prakriti, characterized as unintelligent, unmanifest, uncaused, perpetually active, imperceptible, and eternal, constitutes the sole ultimate origin of the material universe. Conversely, Puruṣa is understood as the conscious principle, functioning as a passive experiencer or enjoyer (bhokta), while Prakriti represents that which is experienced or enjoyed (bhogya). Samkhya-Yoga doctrine maintains that Puruṣa cannot be the genesis of the inanimate world, given that an intelligent principle is incapable of transforming into an unconscious realm. This metaphysical stance represents a pluralistic spiritualism, a form of realism grounded in dualism.

Yoga philosophy incorporates the Guṇa theory from Samkhya. This theory posits that three gunas—innate tendencies or attributes—are present in varying proportions across all beings. These three are identified as sattva guna (representing goodness, constructiveness, and harmony), rajas guna (associated with passion, activity, and confusion), and tamas guna (embodying darkness, destructiveness, and chaos). The unique fundamental nature and psychological inclinations of each being are determined by the relative prevalence of these three gunas. Specifically, when sattva guna is dominant in an individual, characteristics such as lucidity, wisdom, constructiveness, harmony, and peacefulness become evident. A predominance of rajas manifests as attachment, craving, passion-driven actions, and restlessness. Conversely, when tamas is the prevailing guna, ignorance, delusion, destructive conduct, lethargy, and suffering are observed. The Guṇa theory forms a foundational element of the philosophy of mind within the Yoga school of Hinduism.

Early proponents of Yoga philosophy propose that Puruṣa (consciousness) inherently possesses a sattvic (constructive) nature, whereas Prakriti (matter) is intrinsically tamasic (chaotic). They further contend that individuals are born with buddhi (intelligence), which is sattvic. As an individual's life unfolds, the interaction with buddhi generates asmita or ahamkara (ego), characterized as rajasic. Subsequently, the ego's engagement with life processes gives rise to manas (temper or mood), which is tamasic. These three components—buddhi, ahamkara, and manas—interact to form citta (the mind) within the Yoga tradition of Hinduism. Uncontrolled fluctuations of citta are believed to lead to suffering. The path to achieving one's highest potential and a more serene, content, and liberated existence involves cultivating greater awareness of the consciousness and spirituality inherent in buddhi. Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, in verse 2 of Book 1, define Yoga as "restraining the Citta from Vrittis."

Soteriology

The Yoga school of Hinduism posits that ignorance underlies suffering and the cycle of saṁsāra. Liberation, consistent with many other philosophical traditions, entails the eradication of this ignorance, a state attained through discriminative discernment, profound knowledge, and self-awareness. The Yoga Sūtras serve as the foundational text for the Yoga school, outlining the methodology for achieving this liberation. According to Yoga scholars, Samādhi represents a state where lucid awareness emerges, initiating the process of recognizing Purusha and the true Self. The tradition further asserts that this awareness is eternal; once achieved, an individual cannot revert to a state of unawareness. This ultimate state is known as moksha, representing the soteriological objective within Hinduism.

Book 3 of Patanjali's Yogasutra focuses on the final three limbs of Ashtanga Yoga, collectively termed sanyama in verses III.4 to III.5. This section describes sanyama as the methodology for cultivating a "discerning principle" and achieving mastery over citta, leading to self-knowledge. Verse III.12 of the Yogasutras explains that this discerning principle, cultivated through intentness, enables an individual to perfect sant (tranquility) and udita (reason) within their mind and spirit. This development culminates in the capacity to differentiate between sabda (word), artha (meaning), and pratyaya (understanding), thereby empowering compassionate comprehension of the vocalizations or speech of all living beings. Attaining this state of sanyama is said to confer extraordinary powers, enhanced intuition, profound self-knowledge, various freedoms, and ultimately, kaivalya, which represents the yogi's soteriological objective.

The benefits derived from the Yoga philosophy of Hinduism are subsequently outlined in verses III.46 to III.55 of the Yogasutras, which state that the initial five limbs contribute to physical enhancements, including beauty, grace, strength, and resilience. Conversely, the latter three limbs, through sanyama, lead to mental and psychological refinements such as heightened perceptiveness, understanding of one's intrinsic nature, mastery over ego, and discriminative insight into purity, self, and soul. According to Yogasutra's Book IV, this profound knowledge, once attained, is irreversible.

The Concept of God within the Yoga School of Hinduism

Yoga philosophy incorporates the concept of a divine entity, in contrast to the closely associated, non-theistic Samkhya school of Hinduism. Both historical figures, such as the 8th-century scholar Adi Shankara, and numerous contemporary academics characterize the Yoga school as "Samkhya with God."

The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali employ the term Isvara in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32, and II.45. Since the publication of these Sutras, Hindu scholars have engaged in extensive debate and commentary regarding the nature of Isvara. Interpretations within these commentaries vary, defining Isvara as anything from a "personal god" to a "special self" or "anything that has spiritual significance to the individual." Whicher elucidates that despite the potential for both theistic and non-theistic interpretations of Patanjali's concise verses, the concept of Isvara in Yoga philosophy serves as a "transformative catalyst or guide" to assist the practitioner (yogin) on the journey toward spiritual liberation.

In Book 1, verse 24, Patanjali defines Isvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर) as a "special Self" (पुरुषविशेष, puruṣa-viśeṣa).

Sanskrit: क्लेश कर्म विपाकाशयैःपरामृष्टः पुरुषविशेष ईश्वरः ॥२४॥

This sutra further characterizes Isvara as a unique Self uninfluenced (अपरामृष्ट, aparamrsta) by afflictions or hardships (क्लेश, klesha), the consequences of past or present actions (कर्म, karma), the fruits of life (विपाक, vipâka), and psychological imprints or intentions (आशय, ashaya).

Foundational Ethical Principles

The foundational ethical principles articulated in the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy encompass a theory of values, advocating for the cultivation of positive virtues and the avoidance of negative ones, along with an aesthetic framework for understanding bliss from both intrinsic and extrinsic viewpoints. In Yoga philosophy, the virtues to be observed are termed Niyamas, whereas those to be avoided are known as Yamas.

More than sixty ancient and medieval texts on Yoga philosophy address Yamas and Niyamas. While the precise theoretical framework and enumeration of values differ across these texts, Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Svādhyāya, Kșhamā, and Dayā consistently emerge as central ethical concepts in the majority of these discussions.

Patañjali enumerates the five Yamas in Yogasūtra 2.30 as follows:

1. Ahiṃsā (अहिंसा): The principle of non-violence, encompassing the avoidance of harm to all living beings.
2. Satya (सत्य): Truthfulness and adherence to non-falsehood.
3. Asteya (अस्तेय): The practice of non-stealing.
4. Brahmacarya (ब्रह्मचर्य): Encompassing celibacy or fidelity within a partnership.
5. Aparigraha (अपरिग्रहः): The virtue of non-avarice and non-possessiveness.

In Book 2, Patanjali elucidates the mechanisms by which these self-restraints contribute to an individual's personal development. For instance, in verse II.35, Patanjali asserts that the practice of non-violence and non-injury to others (Ahimsa) fosters the cessation of enmity, guiding the yogi toward complete internal and external amity with all beings and phenomena. Additional texts within the Yoga school of Hinduism also incorporate principles such as Kṣamā (क्षमा, forgiveness), Dhṛti (धृति, fortitude and perseverance in adversity), Dayā (दया, compassion), Ārjava (आर्जव, non-hypocrisy), and Mitāhāra (मितहार, a measured diet).

The Niyamas, constituting a component of the Yoga school's theory of values, encompass virtuous habits, behaviors, and observances. The Yogasutra enumerates these Niyamas as:

1. Śauca: Purity, signifying clarity of mind, speech, and body.
2. Santoṣa: Contentment, involving the acceptance of others, an acknowledgment of one's current circumstances as a basis for progression or transformation, and self-optimism.
3. Tapas: Persistence, perseverance, and austerity.
4. Svādhyāya: The practice of self-study, including the study of the Vedas, self-reflection, and introspection into one's thoughts, speech, and actions.
5. Īśvarapraṇidhāna denotes the contemplation of Ishvara, which encompasses concepts such as God, the Supreme Being, Brahman, the True Self, and Unchanging Reality.

Similar to the Yamas, Patanjali elucidates the mechanisms and rationale behind each of the aforementioned Niyamas in fostering individual personal development. For instance, in verse II.42, Patanjali asserts that the practice of contentment and the acceptance of others (Santoṣa) cultivates a state where internal sources of joy become paramount, thereby diminishing the desire for external pleasures. Subsequent Yoga school texts broadened the scope of values categorized under Niyamas, incorporating practices such as Āstika (आस्तिक, signifying belief in a personal God, faith in the Self, and conviction in the knowledge contained within the Vedas and Upanishads), Dāna (दान, representing charity and sharing), Hrī (ह्री, denoting remorse, acceptance of past errors or ignorance, and modesty), Mati (मति, encouraging contemplation, reflection, and the reconciliation of disparate ideas), and Vrata (व्रत, encompassing resolutions, vows, fasting, and pious observances).

Epistemology

The Yoga school acknowledges the identical pramanas, or legitimate methods of acquiring knowledge, as those recognized by the Samkhya school: Pratyakṣa or Dṛṣṭam (direct sensory perception), Anumāna (inference), and Śabda or Āptavacana (the verbal testimony of revered sages or sacred shāstras). In contrast to certain other Hindu philosophical traditions, such as Advaita Vedanta, the Yoga school did not incorporate three additional Pramanas: Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation, or derivation from circumstances), and Anupalabdi (non-perception, serving as negative or cognitive proof).

• Pratyakṣa (प्रत्यक्ष) signifies perception, which, according to Hindu scriptures, manifests in two forms: external and internal. External perception is characterized as the outcome of the interaction between the five senses and external objects, whereas this school defines internal perception as the faculty of the inner sense, or the mind. Ancient and medieval Indian texts delineate four criteria for accurate perception: Indriyarthasannikarsa (direct engagement of one's sensory organs with the object under scrutiny), Avyapadesya (non-verbal; ancient Indian scholars posited that correct perception is not derived from hearsay, where a sensory organ relies on affirming or denying another's perception), Avyabhicara (unwavering; accurate perception remains constant and is not the product of deception, nor does it result from a drifting, defective, or suspect sensory organ or observational tool), and Vyavasayatmaka (definitive; correct perception precludes doubtful judgments, whether due to an incomplete observation of details, the conflation of inference with observation, or selective observation based on desire or aversion). Certain ancient scholars advanced the concept of "unusual perception" as a pramana, terming it internal perception, an assertion that faced opposition from other Indian scholars. Concepts associated with internal perception encompassed pratibha (intuition), samanyalaksanapratyaksa (a type of induction moving from specific observations to a universal principle), and jnanalaksanapratyaksa (a mode of perceiving past processes and states of a subject by observing its present condition). Furthermore, some Hindu schools examined and refined the principles for accepting uncertain knowledge derived from Pratyakṣa-pranama, distinguishing nirnaya (definite judgment or conclusion) from anadhyavasaya (indefinite judgment).
• Anumāṇa (अनुमान) denotes inference, described as the process of deriving a novel conclusion and truth from one or more observations and established truths through the application of reason. A classic illustration of Anumana involves observing smoke and subsequently inferring the presence of fire. Across nearly all Hindu philosophical traditions, this method is recognized as a legitimate and valuable epistemological tool. Indian philosophical texts delineate the inferential method as comprising three distinct components: pratijna (hypothesis), hetu (a reason), and drshtanta (examples). Ancient Indian scholars further stipulate that the hypothesis itself must be subdivided into two elements: sadhya (the concept requiring proof or disproof) and paksha (the subject upon which the sadhya is predicated). An inference attains conditional validity contingent upon the presence of sapaksha (positive corroborating instances) and the absence of vipaksha (negative counter-instances). To ensure epistemic rigor, Indian philosophies prescribe additional methodological steps. For instance, they mandate Vyapti, which necessitates that the hetu (reason) must invariably and independently substantiate the inference across all relevant cases, encompassing both sapaksha and vipaksha. A hypothesis that has been conditionally substantiated is termed a nigamana (conclusion).
• Śabda (शब्द) denotes reliance on verbal testimony, specifically from past or present credible authorities. Hiriyanna defines Sabda-pramana as an epistemological concept signifying trustworthy expert testimony. Hindu philosophical traditions that acknowledge its epistemic validity propose that individuals require knowledge of a vast array of facts; however, due to finite time and energy, one can directly ascertain only a small proportion of these truths. Consequently, cooperation with others becomes essential for the rapid acquisition and dissemination of knowledge, mutually enriching lives. This mode of acquiring valid knowledge is conceptualized as deriving from Sabda (sound), transcending mere spoken or written forms. The credibility of the source is paramount, as authentic knowledge can only emanate from the Sabda of trustworthy origins. Disputes among Hindu philosophical schools primarily concern the methodology for establishing such reliability. Certain schools, notably Carvaka, contend that establishing reliability is inherently impossible, thus dismissing Sabda as a legitimate pramana. Conversely, other schools engage in extensive debate regarding the appropriate criteria for validating reliability.

Relevant Textual Sources

Among the most extensively studied ancient and medieval texts pertaining to the Yoga school of philosophy are works attributed to Patanjali, Bhaskara, Haribhadra (a Jain scholar), Bhoja, and Hemachandra.

Numerous references to the doctrines of the Yoga school of Hinduism are prevalent in ancient Indian texts from other orthodox Hindu traditions. For instance, verse 5.2.17 of the Vaisheshika Sutra by Kanada, a text associated with the Vaisheshika school of Hinduism and dated to the 1st millennium BCE, articulates the following:

Pleasure and pain arise from the contact of the soul, senses, mind, and object. Its non-origination ensues when the mind achieves steadiness within the soul. Subsequently, pain ceases to exist in the embodied soul. This is that Yoga.

The Nyāya Sūtras by Akshapada, variously dated between the 4th and 2nd centuries BCE and a foundational text of the Nyaya school of Hinduism, in Chapter 4.2, elucidates the significance of Yoga as follows:

We are enjoined to engage in meditation in locales such as forests, caves, or sandbanks. Such states [the opponent asserts] might even manifest in liberation. We contend that this is not the case, as knowledge can only emerge within a body already undergoing formation. Furthermore, in our state of liberation, a body is absent. To achieve this, our soul must be purified through abstinence from malevolence and the observance of specific virtues, alongside adherence to the spiritual injunctions derived from Yoga. To attain liberation [moksha], it is imperative to study and adhere to this treatise on knowledge [Yoga], and to engage in discourse with those proficient in its teachings.

The Brahma Sutras, authored by Badarayana, is a foundational text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism. While its original composition may date between 500 BCE and 200 BCE, its extant form is estimated to have been finalized around 400–450 CE. Chapter 2 of this work references a text known as Yoga Smriti. Academic discourse debates whether this Yoga Smriti predates or is identical to Patanjali's Yogasutra, though both hypotheses lack definitive evidence. The Brahma Sutras explicitly refutes the dualistic tenets of contemporary Yoga philosophy, positing that Yoga's true value lies in facilitating Self-realization, rather than in formulating propositions about the Self that contradict Vedic scriptures. Radhakrishnan provides the following translation:

If it is said that there will result the defect of not allowing room for certain Smritis, we say not so, because there will result the defect of not allowing room for some other smritis [further knowledge], and on account of the non-perception of others. Thereby [pradhāna theory of] the Yoga Smriti is refuted.

The Yoga Vasistha represents a syncretic philosophical text on Yoga, with its composition variously attributed to the period between the 6th and 14th centuries CE. It is presented as a dialogue between the ancient Vedic sage Vasistha and the philosopher-king Rama, a central figure in the Hindu epic Ramayana. This work integrates concepts from Vedanta, Jainism, Yoga, Samkhya, Saiva Siddhanta, and Mahayana Buddhism. Throughout its chapters, the text extensively explores Yoga philosophy. Specifically, in section 6.1, Yoga Vasistha articulates its definition of Yoga as follows:

Yoga is the utter transcendence of the mind and is of two types. Self-knowledge is one type, another is the restraint of the life-force of self limitations and psychological conditioning. Yoga has come to mean only the latter, yet both the methods lead to the same result. To some, Self-knowledge through inquiry is difficult, to others Yoga is difficult. But my conviction is that the path of inquiry is easy for all, because Self-knowledge is the ever-present truth. I shall now describe to you the method of Yoga.

• Bhakti yoga
• Jnana yoga
• Rāja yoga

Notes

Sources

Printed Sources

Web Sources

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• Philosophico Literary Research Kaivalyadhama Research Department